Table 2.
Cyanobacteria-derived products/extracts studied in PD disease models.
| Strain | Compound/Extract | Effect | In Vitro Assays | In Vivo Assays | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spirulina sp. | Phycocyanin | Inhibition of A53Tα-synuclein amyloid fibrillation |
Fibrillar and amorphous aggregation assays. Transmission electron microscopy imaging. |
[66] | |
| Spirulina platensis | Phycocyanin | Reduction in α-synuclein inclusions. Gene modulation. Antioxidant. Improved proteostasis. |
BY4741 Yeast transformed with p42FAL-αsyn-GFP: Spot assay. Fluorescence microscopy. Western Blot (α-syn). Flow cytometry. TBARS assay. CAT activity. Total thiols assay. qRT-PCR (SOD1, SOD2, HAP4, LHS1, HRD1, GSH1, GLR1, RPN4, ATG8). |
[93] | |
| Spirulina platensis | Phycocyanin derived peptides (MHLWAAK, MAQAAEYYR, MDYYFEER) |
Improved locomotion. Neuronal protection. Antioxidant. Anti-apoptosis. Gene modulation. |
MPTP-induced parkinsonism in transgenic zebrafish: Fluorescence Microscopy. Behavioral tests. Fluorescence ROS determination. Biochemical analysis (SOD, CAT, GSH-Px, CO, AChE). Acridine orange staining. qRT-PCR. |
[98] | |
| Spirulina maxima | Diet supplementation | Protection of DA and HVA content. Blockage of lipid peroxidation. |
MPTP-induced parkinsonism in male C-57 rats: HPLC (DA, HVA, 5-HIAA, 5-HT). TBARS Assay. |
[95] | |
| Spirulina maxima | Diet supplementation | Improved locomotion. Recovery of mitochondrial activity. Protection of DA, DOPAC, and HVA levels. Antioxidant. |
6-OHDA-induced parkinsonism in male Wistar rats: Turn-behavior test. Closed-field test. Cylinder test. Fluorescence ROS determination. Griess reaction. TBARS assay. MTT assay. HPLC (DA, DOPAC, HVA). |
[96] | |
| Spirulina fusiform | Aqueous freeze-dried extract suspended in olive oil |
Improved behavior and locomotion. Protection of DA levels. Antioxidant. |
6-OHDA-induced parkinsonism in male Wistar albino rats: Amphetamine- and Apomorphine -induced rotations. Locomotor activity. Rota rod. TBARS assay. Reduced glutathione content assay. HPLC (DA). |
[97] | |
| Spirulina platensis | Methanolic extract | Increased lifespan and locomotion. Antioxidant. Protection of DA content. |
Drosophila Melanogaster exposed to FeSO4: Total phenol Content. DPPH radical scavenging activity. Survival rate. Negative Geotaxis assay. Lipid Peroxidation Assay. DA content assay. |
[100] | |
| Spirulina platensis | Diet supplementation | Increased lifespan and locomotion. Antioxidant. Reduced cellular stress. |
DJ-1βΔ93
Drosophila Melanogaster exposed to paraquat: Survival assay. Locomotor assay. PCR (HSP70). SOD and CAT enzymatic assays. Immunostaining (Hsp70 and JNK). |
[101] | |
| Spirulina platensis | Polysaccharide | Increased TH and DAT expression. Antioxidant. |
MPTP-induced parkinsonism in male C57BL/6J mice: Immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR (TH, DAT). SOD and GSH-Px assays. |
[103] | |
| Spirulina platensis | Protein-rich fraction (SPF) |
Improved behavior. Protection of DA and DOPAC levels. Increased TH and DAT expression. Reduced iNOS, COX-2, and GFAP expression. Antioxidant. |
6-OHDA-induced hemiparkinsonism in male Wistar rats: Apomorphine-induced rotational test. Open-field test. Forced swim test. HPLC (DA, DOPAC). Griess Reaction. TBARS assay. Immunohistochemistry (TH, DAT, iNOS, GFAP, COX-2) |
[104] | |
| Spirulina platensis | 10% (w/v) aqueous extract |
Improved behavior. Protection of DA and DOPAC levels. Protection of TH and DAT expression. Decreased iNOS and COX-2. Antioxidant. |
6-OHDA-induced parkinsonism in male Wistar rats: Apomorphine-induced rotational test. HPLC (DA, DOPAC). Griess Reaction. TBARS assay. Immunohistochemistry (TH, DAT, iNOS, COX-2). |
[105] | |
| Spirulina | Diet supplementation | Increase in TH+ and NeuN+ neurons. Anti-inflammatory. |
F344 rats treated with AAV9α-synuclein: Immunohistochemistry (TH, α-synuclein, OX-6, NeuN). Stereology. Western Blot (CX3CR1). |
[106] | |
| Spirulina | Diet supplementation | Recovery of striatal dopamine innervation. Increased TH+ fibers. Anti-inflammatory. |
6-OHDA-induced parkinsonism in F344 male rats: Immunohistochemistry (TH, OX-6, Iba1, GFAP). Cell counting. |
[107] |
Abbreviations: α-syn—α-synuclein. GFP—Green fluorescent protein. TBARS—Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances. CAT—Catalase. RT-PCR -Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. SOD1—Copper-zinc superoxide dismutase. SOD2—Manganese superoxide dismutase. HAP4—Glucose-repressed regulated subunit of the HAP transcriptional complex. LHS1—Heat shock protein 70 homolog. HRD1—E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase. GSH1—Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase. GLR1—Glutathione reductase. RPN4—Zinc-coordinating proteasomal transcription factor. ATG8—Autophagy-related protein 8. DA—Dopamine. HVA—Homovanillic acid. MPTP—1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine. HPLC—High-performance liquid chromatography. 5-HIAA—5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid. 5-HT—5-hydroxytryptamine. DOPAC—3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid. 6-OHDA—6-hydroxydopamine. ROS—Reactive oxygen species. MTT—3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide. TH—Tyrosine hydroxylase. DAT—Dopamine transporter. SOD—Superoxide dismutase. GSH-Px—Glutathione peroxidase. iNOS—Inducible nitric oxide synthase. COX-2—Cyclooxygenase 2. GFAP—Glial fibrillary acidic protein. NeuN—Neuronal nuclear protein. OX-6—Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II antigen. CX3CR1—Fractalkine receptor. Iba1—Ionized calcium-binding adaptor. FeSO4—Ferrous sulfate. DPPH—2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl. HSP70—70 kilodalton heat shock protein. JNK—c-Jun N-terminal cinase. CO—Protein carbonyl. AChE—Acetylcholinesterase.