Table 1.

Overview of direct plasma treatment results in recent years.

Plasma Source Parameters	Object	Key Results	Reference
DBD	Soybeans (Glycine max L.)	Increased protein extraction yield, water binding and oil absorption capacities, and improved emulsifying activity.	[67]
DBD	Spinach seeds	Increased water absorption and germination.	[68]
DBD	Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seeds	Faster growth, taller seedlings, and increased yield in mature plants persisting even after storage for two weeks.	[69]
DBD	Lettuce (‘Kerlis’)	Increased yield, soluble solids, conductivity, and acidity. High ionization plasma raised nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content and increased leaf pigments.	[70]
DBD	Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ‘Dacic’ and ‘Otilia’) seeds	Increased chlorophyll and flavonoid content	[71].
DBD	Brassica oleracea and Lepidium sativum seeds	Enhancing hydrophilicity. Increased stem and root length in seedlings.	[72]
DBD	Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) seeds	Increased seed germination plant growth, antioxidant activity, soluble sugars, proteins, total phenols, and certain mineral concentrations (Ca, Cu, Fe, Mn, K), while Zn content decreased.	[73]
DBD	White Radish (Raphanus sativus)	Changed seed coat morphology, enhancing water permeability. Improved germination, chlorophyll content, antioxidant activity, and seedling phenols.	[74]
DBD	Mushrooms (Flammulina velutipes)	Maintained weight parameters and superoxide anion formation rate. Improved antioxidant activity, enzyme activity, malondialdehyde levels, vitamin C retention, and extended shelf life.	[75]
DBD	Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour	Improved wheat flour dough’s viscoelastic properties by strengthening gluten protein-starch networks. Increased flour hydration.	[76]
DBD	Xylella fastidiosa	Complete inhibition of bacterial growth.	[77]
DBD	Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seeds		[78]
DBD	Sundried tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.), Aspergillus rugulovalvus, Aspergillus niger	Reduced bacterial and fungal populations. Lycopene content increased.	[79]
DBD	Arabidopsis thaliana seeds	Improved seed germination.	[80]
DBD	Basil (Ocimum basilicum L. ‘Genovese Gigante’)	Increased leaf humidity, chlorophyll, carotenoids, antioxidant activity, flavonoids, and peroxidase activity. Reduced microbial load.	[81]
DBD	Arabidopsis thaliana, Camelina sativa seeds	A. thaliana benefits from longer exposure due to increased unsaturated fatty acids, while C. sativa’s optimal time is shorter due to reduced unsaturated fatty acids.	[82]
DBD	Pectobacterium carotovorum, Pectobacterium atrosepticum, Dickeya solani, inoculated either on mung bean seeds	Inactivated bacteria. A 2-min exposure stimulated seed germination and growth. A 4-min exposure hindered germination and growth.	[83]
DBD	Dried maize (Zea mays L.) ‘Ronaldinio’ grains	Enhanced seed viability and seedling growth through enzyme activity stimulation. Triggered heat shock proteins with minimal DNA damage. Surface hydrophilicity increased.	[84]
DBD	Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) ’VB Vokiai’ and ’VB Nojai’	Decreased emergence but increased growth, biomass, and yield. Enhanced seed weight per plant.	[85]
DBD	Dried pea (Pisum sativum L.) ’Prophet‘ seeds	Enhanced seed germination. Increased peroxidase activity in cell walls and mechanical strength.	[86]
DBD	Dried barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) ’Maltz‘ grains	Improved germination and enzyme activity.	[87]
DBD	Common pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), black pine (Pinus nigra Arnold), mountain pine (Pinus mugo Turra) seeds	Short treatment duration improved germinated and growing. Long treatment duration had a retarding effect.	[88]
DBD	Dried pea (Pisum sativum L.) seeds	Improved germination, minimized DNA damage	[89]
DBD	Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)	Improved surface wettability and germination.	[90]
DBD	Pea (Pisum sativum L.) ’Prophet‘ seeds	Treatment for 60 s improved seed germination by enhancing surface wettability and activating enzymes. Shorter treatments stimulated germination without DNA damage.	[91]
DBD	Raw barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) grains	Reduced deoxynivalenol mycotoxin concentration.	[92]
DBD	Cuts of rootstock and scion of pear (Pyrus communis L.)	Enhanced scion growth. Improved vascular system differentiation.	[93]
DBD	Cuts of rootstock and scion of cherry	Enhanced scion growth. Improved vascular system differentiation	[94]
APPJ	Extracts from 12 herbs: Echinacea purpurea, Salvia officinalis, Urtica dioica, Polygonum aviculare, Vaccinium myrtillus, Taraxacum officinale, Hypericum perforatum, Achillea millefolium, Sanguisorba officinalis, Leonurus cardiaca, Ballota nigra, Andrographis paniculata	Enhanced antioxidant activity in extracts by promoting polyphenol extraction, increasing flavonoids and anthocyanins, while reducing volatile compounds and altering aroma. Lowered aerobic bacteria. Induced color and pH shifts.	[95]
APPJ	Mung bean (Vigna radiata)	Improved seed germination and stem length. The contact angle decreased, aiding water uptake.	[96]
APPJ	Bulb onions (Allium cepa L.) seeds	Improved germination and vigor.	[97]
APPJ	Orchid(Cymbidium tracyanum L. Castle) protocorms	Improved size, bud count, fresh and dry weights. Disrupted cell walls, aiding bud elongation and dormancy release.	[98]
Microwave-driven plasma jet	Whole black pepper seeds, whole allspice berries, and whole juniper berries	Inactivated fungi but did not achieve complete antibacterial effects.	[99]
Corona discharge	Lentil seeds	Improved germination and growth. Reduced bacteria.	[100]
DBD	Stevia rebaudiana	Enhanced seed water absorption, germination, and plant yield. Improved nutritional content and potential shelf life extension.	[101]
Inductively coupled RF discharge	Grains of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) infected with the following fungi: Alternaria alternata (GB002), Aspergillus flavus (GB005), Aspergillus niger (GB006), Cladosporium cladosporioides (GB007), Epicoccum nigrum (GB009), Fusarium fujikuroi (GB011), Fusarium graminearum (GB012), Fusarium oxysporum (GB013), Fusarium proliferatum (GB014), Fusarium sporotrichioides (GB015)	Reduced contamination for most fungal taxa, with Fusarium graminearum being the most sensitive and Fusarium fujikuroi the most resistant.	[102]
Inductively coupled RF discharge	Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ’Ingenio‘ seeds	Increased roughness and lowered contact angle. Enhanced water absorption. Hindered seedling germination, α-amylase activity.	[103]
Inductively coupled RF discharge	Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) seeds	Enhanced seed surface hydrophilicity.	[104]
Inductively coupled RF discharge	Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium proliferatum contaminated maize (Zea mays) seedlings	Fungicide (prothioconazole) combined with plasma effectively reduces fungi contamination.	[105]
RF discharge	Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.),	Reduced fungal infection. Increased seed wettability. Decreased hydrophobicity. Increased root length.	[106]
Inductively coupled RF discharge	Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) ’Arimaiciai‘ seeds	Improved germination. Phytohormone levels varied, not directly correlating with germination. Increased root nodule numbers.	[107]
RF discharge	Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ’Apache‘ and ’Bezostaya 1‘ seeds	Increased vigor index, root system, seedling wet weight, and germination rate.	[108]
High voltage electrical discharge	Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ‘BC Opsesija’	Enhanced germination and growth by altering hormone and metabolite levels.	[109]
Glow discharge	Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seeds	Increased seed germination. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase activity increased in shoots. Increased content of soluble sugars, proteins, iron, manganese, fat, and ash. Moisture content decreased.	[110]
Glow discharge	Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ’Shannong 12’	Improved seed germination index, plant height, bushiness, growth, and number of grains.	[111]
Transient spark discharge	Pea (Pisum sativum L.) ’Eso‘ seeds	Increased yields and sustained effect.	[112]