. 2023 Oct 11;24(20):15093. doi: 10.3390/ijms242015093

Table 2.

Overview of the indirect plasma treatment results in recent years.

Plasma Source	Liquid	PTS Characteristics	Object	Key Results	References
DBD	Distilled water	pH: 3.42 ± 0.19 and 2.64 ± 0.05; ORV: 461.67 ± 18.18 and 547.33 ± 9.02 mV; Ec: 182.67 ± 16.8 and 883.33 ± 37.21 µs/cm; [O₃]: 1.21 ± 0.24 and 6.05 ± 0.73 mg/L; [H₂O₂]: 181.67 ± 40.41 and 658.33 ± 28.87µM; [NO₃⁻]: 4.03 ± 0.19 and 32.45 ± 5.43 mg/L; [NO₂⁻]: 0.31 ± 0.04 and 0.46 ± 0.08 mg/L, When exposed to 10 kHz and 200 Hz, respectively	Fresh-cut potato	Disinfection. Antioxidant properties. Enzyme Inactivation.	[115]
DBD	Deionized water	pH: 7.17 ± 0.34, 8.04 ± 0.51, 3.97 ± 0.065, 6.807 ± 0.210; ORP: 176.5 ± 3.53, 194 ± 5.65, 301 ± 1.41, 241.5 ± 0.70 mV; TDS: 16.9 ± 1.27, 26.5 ± 1.31, 51.6 ± 1.44, 30.2 ± 1.74 ppm; Ec: 21 ± 2.83, 33.7 ± 1.62, 74 ± 2.12, 43.3 ± 2.99 µS/cm [NO_x⁻]: 0.52 ± 0.04, 0.452 ± 0.2, 130.61 ± 1.39, 144.37 ± 1.48 µM; [H₂O₂]: 0.417 ± 0.01, 0.447 ± 0.03, 4.5 ± 0.26, 3.875 ± 0.441 µM for deionized water with Met⁺, deionized water with Met⁺, PAW without Met⁺, PAW with Met⁺, respectively	Pak Choi seeds (Brassica campestris L.)	Faster germination. Increased seedling length. Higher chlorophyll and protein content. Positive gene expression.	[116]
DBD	Deionized water	[NO₃⁻]: ~25, 35, 60, 90, 110 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: ~0.15, ~0.4, 0.5, 0.82, 0.9 mg/L [H₂O₂]: <1, ~1.5, 3.6, 4.0, 5.5 mM [O₂⁻]: ~26, 34, 22, 7, 5 mM for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 min. DBD treatment, respectively	Strawberry	Longer shelf life, reduced spoilage. No taste/texture change. Best quality after 4 days of PAW treatment.	[117]
DBD	Pure water	pH: 5.16 ± 0.03	Button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)	Decreased champignon browning, inhibited enzymes, and maintained organoleptic quality for preservation.	[118]
DBD	Deionized water	[NO₃⁻]: ~0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.7, 1.9 mM for 3, 5, 10, 15, 30 min. 12 kHz plasma treatment, respectively [NO₃⁻]: ~0.25, 0.25, 1.2, 1.3, 3.3 mM For 3, 5, 10, 15, 30 min. 20 kHz plasma treatment, respectively	Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings	Low DBD-PAW doses influenced intracellular Ca²⁺ signals.	[119]
DBD	Distilled water	[H₂O₂]: 0, 0, 180.4 ± 7.2, 294.9 ± 18.4, 387.7 ± 24.5 μM [·OH]: 16.7 ± 3.3, 25.5 ± 2.9, 55 ± 4.0, 80.0 ± 2.9, 0 μM [NO₂⁻]: 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 μM [NO₃⁻]: 0, 0, 22.7 ± 3.6, 18.1 ± 3.8, 15.7 ± 1.9 μM With He/O₂ plasma activation times of 10, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min, respectively [H₂O₂]: 0, 0, 47.8 ± 3.3, 33.3 ± 2.0, 30.2 ± 0.2 μM [·OH]: 14.5 ± 3.3, 23.1 ± 2.3, 42.7 ± 5.2, 54.3 ± 4.7, 0 μM [NO₂⁻]: 0, 0, 56.5 ± 2.5, 47.3 ± 1.7, 35.4 ± 4.0 μM [NO₃⁻]: 0, 0, 3420.7 ± 103.5, 4948.6 ± 74.5, 6191.1 ± 101.2 μM With air plasma activation times of 10, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min, respectively	Nicotiana tabacum ‘Havana 425’ seeds	Air and He/O₂ PAW enhanced testa and endosperm rupture in low fluence conditions. Increased GA3ox2 and EXPA4 activity.	[120]
DBD	Distilled water	pH: ~5.8, 5.45, 4.8, 4.85, 4.8, 4.8 Ec: ~10, 13, 14, 15, 18, 17 μS/cm [H₂O₂]: ~15, 19, 33, 40, 52, 69 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: <5 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: ~20, 30, 40, 38, 50, 58 mg/L For 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 min plasma treatment, respectively	Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seeds	Boosted lettuce seed germination with positive effects on seedling growth and chlorophyll content.	[121]
DBD	Deionized water	pH: 3.62 ± 0.02, 3.34 ± 0.03, 2.94 ± 0.08, 2.62 ± 0.07, 2.37 ± 0.04 Ec: 118.10 ± 2.26, 218.50 ± 9.64, 460.33 ± 15.25, 972.93 ± 32.41, 1847.00 ± 70.19 µS/cm [H₂O₂]: 0.09 ± 0.01, 0.14 ± 0.01, 0.27 ± 0.02, 0.88 ± 0.04, 1.31 ± 0.04 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 1.09 ± 0.11, 1.24 ± 0.12, 1.85 ± 0.07, 3.68 ± 0.12, 5.17 ± 0.16 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 25.29 ± 2.88, 49.05 ± 2.61, 102.67 ± 6.30, 204.87 ± 8.74, 389.08 ± 12.24 mg/L For 5, 7, 12, 19, and 40 min plasma treatment, respectively	Arabidopsis thaliana L.	Affected root hair density via gene regulation (COBL9, XTH9, XTH17).	[122]
DBD	Distilled water	[H₂O₂]: 0.7 ± 0.2 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 1.071 ± 0.005 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 24.7 ± 2.3 mg/L	Maize (Zea mays L. ‘SY ORPHEUS’)	Reduced leaf chlorophyll, changed fluorescence parameters, and increased nitrogen content.	[123]
DBD	Distilled water	pH: 6.7 Ec: 34 µS [H₂O₂]: 1.4 ± 0.4 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 0.753 ± 0.009 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 20.4 ± 1.8 mg/L	Soil	Minimal effects on soil, with slight changes in evaporation, pH, and water absorption. Higher PAW doses slowed tap water absorption but increased water retention.	[124]
DBD	Deionized water	pH: 4.3 [NO₃⁻]: 25.7 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 16.4 mg/L [H₂O₂]: 2–5 mg/L	Xylella fastidiosa	Deactivation of Xylella fastidiosa cells.	[77]
DBD	Water	[H₂O₂]: 1,1,2,2,10,100, 100, >100, >100 ppm for 30 kV, 3 min., 30 kV, 5 min., 30 kV, 7 min., 50 kV, 3 min., 50 kV, 5 min., 50 kV, 7 min., 70 kV, 3 min., 70 kV, 5 min., 70 kV, 7 min. plasma treatment, respectively.	Soybeans (Glycine max)	Faster germination and growth. ZnO nanoparticles reduced heavy metal uptake in plants.	[125]
APPJ	Deionized water	pH: ~4.5, 3.5, 3 Ec: ~50, 270, 590 µS/cm For 10, 15, and 20 kV treatment, respectively	Cuimi kumquat	Reduced pesticide residues, preserved soluble solids, increased acidity, and maintained fruit color.	[126]
Microwave-driven plasma torch	Deionized water	[NO₃⁻]: 72.3 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 1600.7 mg/L [H₂O₂]: 717.3 mg/L	Pseudomonas fluorescence suspended cells and P. fluorescence biofilms	Strong antibacterial effects. Effective against suspension cells and P. fluorescence biofilms.	[127]
APPJ	Reverse osmosis water	[NO₃⁻]: 42.7 ± 0.70 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 14.7 ± 0.58 mg/L pH: 3.17 ± 0.06 Ec: 311.7 ± 12.01 µS/cm ORP: 554 ± 2.65 mV	Water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) seeds	Phenols increase with PAW, more with Cd, and less with Pb. Flavonoids rise with PAW and Cd, with no change with Pb. Heavy metals impact PAW effects.	[128]
Pinhole plasma jet	Tap water	pH: 5.5–6 Ec: 1.5 µS/cm [NO₃⁻]: 883.59 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 31.56 mg/L [H₂O₂]: 102.99 mg/L	Green oak lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)	Growth parameters are mostly unaffected. Leaf area and greenness differed. Yields similar to commercial nitrate. Lower nitrate residues with PAW treatment. Plasma nitrate is converted to amino acids at higher concentrations than normal nitrate.	[129]
Microwave-driven plasma torch.	Deionized water	pH: ~4 ORP: ~502 mV Ec: ~1367 µS/cm [NO_x⁻]: 4000 µM	Escherichia coli K-12 (KCTC 1116), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (KCTC 1636), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 12600)	Reduced viable cells, shifted gene expression (soxRS up, oxyR down), leads to nitric oxide accumulation, and alters bacterial cell morphology.	[130]
APPJ	Commercially purified water of pharmaceutical degree (Pharmacopoeia Europea, Ph. Eur. 9)	pH: 6.1, 6.1, 5.8 Ec: ~27 µS/cm [H₂O₂]: 4.1, 3.1, 0 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 3.3, 2.8, 1.4 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 11.2, 5.5, 5.4 mg/L For 10, 20, 30 min after plasma treatment, respectively	Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)	Better growth on day 7, but advantages faded by days 14, 21, and 28. No significant root system impact. Increased dry matter content.	[131]
APPJ	Commercially purified water of pharmaceutical degree (Pharmacopoeia Europea, Ph. Eur. 9)	pH: 6.1, 6.1, 5.8 [H₂O₂]: 4.1, 3.1, 0 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 3.3, 2.8, 1.4 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 11.2, 5.5, 5.4 mg/L For 10, 20, and 30 min after plasma treatment, respectively	Sweet pepper seeds (Capsicum annuum): ‘Bibic’ and ‘Bernita’	Height, weight, leaf count, interleaf nodes, and buds increased. Dry matter content rose. Yield increased.	[132]
Gliding arc plasma jet	Tap water, deionized water, distilled water, filtered water, and 0.9% saline	Plasma-treated tap water: pH: 5.56, 3.55, 3.06, 2.57 ± 0.09 ORP: 83, 193, 221, 250 ± 5.0 mV TDS: 50, 160, 330, 720 ± 5.0 ppm Ec: 70, 220, 470, 720 ± 5 μS/cm [H₂O₂]: 15.0, 80.3, 127.3, 111.7 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 25.0, 47.6, 48.6, 55.6 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 24.0, 53.3, 120.4, 69.3 mg/L Plasma-treated deionized water: pH: 4.00, 3.30, 2.95, 2.47 ± 0.09 ORP: 169, 208, 228, 239 ± 5.0 mV TDS: 40, 170, 450, 560 ± 5.0 ppm Ec: 50, 240, 310, 800 ± 5 μS/cm [H₂O₂]: 9.3, 76.5, 82.0, 160.3 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 9.2, 46.2, 45.8, 62.0 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 7.3, 47.4, 106.3, 69.3 mg/L After 1.0, 5.0, 30.0, and 60.0 min., respectively	Escherichia coli Oral keratinocyte cell cultures	Strong antimicrobial efficacy. Low cytotoxicity on oral keratinocytes.	[133]
APPJ	Acidic electrolyzed water	pH: ~2.3, 2.5, 1.95, 1.91 ORP: ~605, 608, 610, 855 mV Ec: ~1600, 2470, 2750, 3200 μS/cm [H₂O₂]: 75, 82, 75, 72 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: ~85, 90, 90, 90 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 2.02, 75.28, 138.7 and 219.6 mg/L With plasma activation times of 3, 6, 10, and 15 min, respectively	B. subtilis (ATCC6633) and E. coli (ATCC8739)	Plasma-activated acidic electrolyzed water (PA-AEW) effectively kills B. subtilis, surpassing PAW and AEW.	[134]
Pinhole plasma jet	Deionized water	[H₂O₂]: 369.12 mg/L	Escherichia coli and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides in chili (Capsicum annuum L.)	Carbendazim and chlorpyrifos reduction. 100% fungal spore germination inhibition.	[135]
APPJ	Ultrapure milli-Q	pH: 6.5, 6.0 Ec: 99.0 ± 13.5, 177.3 ± 11.0 µS/cm ORP: 423.3 ± 11.7, 483.3 ± 12.6 mV TDS: 36.3 ± 2.1, 68.3 ± 5.5 ppm [O₃]: 2.8 ± 0.1, 2.1 ± 0.3 mg/L [H₂O₂]: 0.5 ± 0.1, 1.5 ± 0.2 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 5.1 ± 0.4, 10.5 ± 1.1 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 34 ± 2.6, 53.9 ± 3.6 mg/L For 5- and 10-min plasma treatment, respectively	Pea (Pisum sativum L.) seeds	PAW-treated pea seeds had improved germination, growth, and biochemical traits. Wax removal, increased hydrophilicity, and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity.	[136]
APPJ	Deionized water and deionized water +Mg²⁺	For PAW-Mg²⁺ pH: ~4.8, 5.2, 5.8, 6.0, 6.6 [NO₃⁻]: ~25, 40, 40, 50, 60 mM For PAW pH: ~3.6, 3.2, 2.6, 2.2, 2.3 [NO₃⁻]: ~20, 40, 80, 120, 120 mM For 3, 6, 10, 15, and 20 min plasma treatment, respectively	Cryptococcus pseudolongus	Magnesium-enriched PAW controls nitrate and exhibit antifungal activity against C. pseudolongus, with nitrate capture influencing its effectiveness.	[137]
APPJ	Ultrapure milli-Q	pH: ~2.5, 2.2, 2.0, 1.5, 1.5, 1.0 Ec: ~1, 3, 9, 22, 32, 39 mS/cm [NO₃⁻]: ~200, 300, 500, 800, 900, 1200 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: ~1500, 3000, 10,000, 14,000, 16,000, 16,000 µg/L [O₃]: ~26, 24, 24, 17, 15, 14 mg/L [H₂O₂]: ~6, 4.5, 4.5, 3, 2.5, 2 mg/L For ORP 590, 630, 640, 700, 760, and 795 mV, respectively	C. albicans, Citrus limon	Reduced C. albicans by damaging cell membranes. Long-term fungicidal effects on C. albicans and Citrus limon spoilage fungi.	[138]
APPJ	Distilled water	pH: 6.50 ± 0.07 [O₃]: 0.45 ± 0.01 mg/L [H₂O₂]: 8.75 ± 0.09 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 6.00 ± 0.06 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 46.00 ± 0.47 mg/L	Paddy seeds (Oryza sativa L.‘BRRIdhan 28’)	Enhanced rice seed germination, improved plant growth, defense mechanisms, enzymatic activity, protein, sugar content, and yielding.	[139]
APPJ	Reverse osmotic water	pH: 6.79 ± 0.18, 4.22 ± 0.07, 3.37 ± 0.06, 3.17 ± 0.06 Ec: 104.9 ± 22.55, 117.9 ± 2.80, 208.3 ± 6.51, 311.7 ± 12.01 µS/cm ORP: 370 ± 7.51, 465 ± 9.29, 534 ± 13.0, 554 ± 2.65 mV [H₂O₂]: ~ 78, 142, 115, 95 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 10.3 ± 0.58, 17.3 ± 1.15, 13.0 ± 1.00, 14.7 ± 0.58 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 13.8 ± 0.15, 29.8 ± 1.67, 33.3 ± 0.87, 42.7 ± 0.70 mg/L For 5, 10, 15, and 20 min plasma treatment, respectively	Water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) seeds	Reduced Cd uptake in spinach but not Pb.	[140]
APPJ	Sterile deionized water	pH: 3.53, 3.24, 3.10, 3.01 [H₂O₂]: ~25, 50, 60, 55 µM [NO_x]: ~0.9, 1.7, 2.5, 2.7 mM For 1, 3, 6, and 10 min by the soft plasma jet treatment, respectively.	Aspergillus brasiliensis	Damaged cell walls and reduced spore viability	[141]
APPJ	Deionized water	pH: 4.3 ± 0.3, 4.7 ± 0.2, 5.1 ± 0.3, 6.2 ± 0.4 [NO_x]: 490.0 ± 53.7, 520.7 ± 71.6, 450.1 ± 69.5, 597.5 ± 53.4 M [NH₃]: 2.1 ± 0.1, 2.6 ± 0.3, 2.9 ± 0.2, 4.9 ± 0.3 mg/L [H₂O₂]: 38.2 ± 5.0, 35.3 ± 3.1, 32.6 ± 6.5, 28.7 ± 4.2 M For PAW, Zn- PAW, Al- PAW, and Mg- PAW, respectively.	Maize plants (Zea mays L.)	PAW with added Mg, Al, or Zn ions accelerated germination and stem growth. Metal ions enhanced nitrogen reduction, leading to increased chlorophyll and protein content in plants.	[142]
Plasma torch	Deionized water	pH: ~3 [H₂O₂]: ~0.5 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: ~47 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: ~33 mg/L	Arabidopsis thaliana	PAW exposure rapidly increased Ca²⁺ in cells. Nitrates, nitrites, and hydrogen peroxide at PAW concentrations did not affect Ca²⁺ dynamics.	[143]
Plasma torch	Distilled water	pH: ~3 [H₂O₂]: 70 µM [NO_x⁻]: 15 mM	Strawberry seeds	Improved germination	[144]
Plasma torch	Distilled water	pH: ~3 [H₂O₂]: 22.8 µM [NO_x⁻]: 5.7 mM	Cotton, wheat, and strawberry seeds	Improved germination. Protection against fusarium and hyperthermia. PAW is better than commercial seed germination stimulators.	[145]
Corona discharge	Distilled water	pH: 3.3. [H₂O₂]: 4.5 ± 0.1 [NO₂⁻]: 30.4 ± 0.9 [O₃]: 0.3 ± 0.1 mg/L	Fresh rocket (Eruca sativa) leaves	Preserved nutrients, increased some vitamins and polyphenols. Decreased antioxidant and catalase activity, aiding storage quality.	[146]
Corona discharge	Distilled water	[H₂O₂]: 97.4 ± 3.2 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 391.1 ± 9.3 mg/L [O₃]: <3.8 mg/L, [NO₂⁻]: <10⁻³ mg/L of NO₂⁻ mg/L	Wheat grains (Triticum aestivum L.), Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Improved germination, shoot growth, and decontamination of E. coli and S. cerevisiae.	[147]
Corona discharge	Distilled water	pH: 3.3 [H₂O₂]: 4.5 ± 0.1 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 30.4 ± 0.9 mg/L [O₃]: 0.3 ± 0.1 mg/L	Fresh-cut Eruca sativa	Reduced radical scavenging activity over time but increased total phenols and glucosinolate percentage. PAW polyphenol extract showed no cytotoxicity and improved redox balance.	[148]
Gliding arc plasma	Tap water	pH: 3.4, 3.3 TDS: 90, 110 mg/L Ec: 190, 230 μS/cm [H₂O₂]: 0.01, 0.028 mM/L [NO₃⁻]: 0.156, 0.176 mM/L For 5 and 15 min after plasma treatment, respectively	Maize (Zea mays L.) seeds	15 min treatment led to 100% seed germination and improved stem length, leaf width, collar diameter, chlorophyll content, and water uptake.	[149]
Gliding arc plasma	Distilled water	pH: ~4.2 ± 0.2, 3.7 ± 0.1, 3.3 ± 0.3 [H₂O₂]: ~6 ± 1, 7 ± 3, 12 ± 5 µM [NO₂⁻]: ~1.9 ± 0.4, 2.4 ± 0.3, 2.9 ± 0.6 mM For 5, 10, and 20 min plasma treatment, respectively	Beetroot (Beta vulgaris ‘CYLINDRA’ ), carrot (Daucus carota ‘AFALON F1’) seeds	Improved germination in Beta vulgaris and had mixed effects on Daucus carota seeds compared to NaOCl, also altering fungal species composition.	[150]
Gliding arc plasma	Nutrient solution	[NO₃⁻]: 191.9 ± 3.1, 189.8 ± 1.7, 191.6 ± 1.6 [NO₂⁻]: 18.8 ± 1.9, 18.6 ± 0.9, 18.7 ± 1.1, For one-time DBD processing and multiple processing, respectively	Ocimum basilicum L.	Boosted basil growth, enriched aroma compounds, and reduced algae.	[151]
Gliding arc plasma	Deionized water	pH: 4.69 ± 0.08, 4.48 ± 0.05, 4.37 ± 0.07, 4.29 ± 0.06 T: 16.5 ± 0.04, 16.59 ± 0.06, 16.62 ± 0.03, 16.64 ± 0.04 °C Ec: 50.2 ± 1.60; 60.2 ± 1.20, 70.6 ± 1.80, 76.8 ± 1.60 µS/cm [NO₂⁻]: 0.49 ± 0.04, 0.60 ± 0.03, 0.80 ± 0.06, 0.86 ± 0.04 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: 0.49 ± 0.14, 4.84 ± 0.12, 6.69 ± 0.16, 7.20 ± 0.12 mg/L [NH₃]: 1.11 ± 0.07, 2.68 ± 0.09, 3.01 ± 0.07, 3.40 ± 0.08 mg/L for 5, 10, 15, 20. GAD treatment, respectively	Phapar (Fagopyrum esculentum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), mustard (Brassica nigra), and rayo (Brassica juncea)	Improved seed germination, uniformity, daily germination, increased water uptake, root/shoot length, and seed vigor.	[152]
RF discharge	Distilled water	pH: 3.0 [H₂O₂]: 100 ppm	Flour from Noui Khuea brown rice (Oryza sativa L.) conjugated with three different phenolic compounds—gallic acid, sinapic acid, and crude Mon-pu (Glochidion wallichianum Muell Arg) extract	Gallic acid boosts 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl removal in starch, especially when PAW-synthesized, regardless of ultrasound. Complexation index, resistant starch lower than crude Mon-pu extract complex.	[153]
Direct discharge	Distilled water	pH: 3.3 [O₃]: 0.3 ± 0.1 mg/L [H₂O₂]: 4.5 ± 0.1 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 30.4 ± 0.9 mg/L	Eruca sativa Mill	β-sitosterol and campesterol decreased, while β-carotene, luteolin, and chlorophyll b increased after 2-min PAW exposure. Chlorophyll content reduced at 20 min.	[154]
Direct discharge	Distilled water	pH: 3.3 [O₃]: 0.3 ± 0.1 mg/L [H₂O₂]: 4.5 ± 0.1 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: 30.4 ± 0.9 mg/L	Eruca sativa	Reduced bacteria by 1.7–3 Log CFU/g with minor quality changes, surpassing the antibacterial effect of hypochlorite.	[155]
Transient spark discharge	Tap water	pH: 7.5 [H₂O₂]: 0.5 ± 0.1 mM [NO₂⁻]: 0.6 ± 0.1 mM [NO₃⁻]: 1.7 ± 0.3 mM	Corns of maize (Zea mays L.) (hybrid Bielik)	Enhanced seedling growth. It affected chlorophyll, carotenoid levels, and leaf arsenic accumulation, not root accumulation.	[156]
Glow discharge	Tap water	[H₂O₂]: ~0.33, 0.64, 1.00 mM [NO₂⁻]: ~0.93, 0.59, 0.95 mM [NO₃⁻]: ~2.46, 1.40, 2.34 mM For transient spark, PAW of glow discharge at activation time 1 min and 2 min, respectively.	Dried barley (Hordeum vulgare L. ‘Kangoo’) grains and pea (Pisum sativum L. ‘Eso’) seeds	Enhanced pea growth and amylase activity without harm, while barley suffered DNA damage, growth reduction, and oxidative stress.	[157]
Glow discharge.	Re-distilled water and the inorganic salt concentration (ammonium nitrate, NH₄NO₃) in the solution turned out to be 0.50% (m/w)	−	Dickeya solani IFB0099, Pectobacterium atrosepticum IFB5103 strains	Bactericidal effects on Dickeya solani and Pectobacterium atrosepticum within 24 h.	[158]
Transient spark	Tap water	pH: ~ 7.5 [H₂O₂]: ~ 0.42 mM [NO₃⁻]: ~ 0.85 mM	Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. capitata ‘Král máje I’)	PAW-irrigated lettuce had similar dry weight but higher pigment content, photosynthetic rate, and lower antioxidant enzyme activity compared to H₂O₂ + NO₃⁻ irrigation.	[159]
Glow discharge	Tap water	−	Poa pratensis, Lolium perenne	Decreased fungal diseases, improved turf density and overwintering. Synergistic effect with bio-stimulant.	[160]
Spark discharge	Deionized water	pH: 6.7, 6.4, 6.0, 5.3, 3.7 [H₂O₂]: ~60, 75, 100, 150, 240 µM [NO₂⁻]: 25, 30, 50, 75, 230 µM For 3, 6, 9,12, and 15 min plasma treatment, respectively.	Black gram (Vigna mungo L.)	Increased H₂O₂ and ROS levels in seeds, leaves, and roots. Elevated catalase levels linked to VmCAT gene activation.	[161]
Glow discharge	80 mM L-phenylalanine	[H₂O₂]: 282 µM [NO₂⁻]: 4.4 µM [NO₃⁻]: 520 µM after 4 min plasma treatment	Raphanus sp., E. coli O1:K1:H7	Seedlings stimulation and antibacterial effect.	[162]
T-shaped reactor	Distilled water	pH: 4.6; 4.4; 5.1; 4.1; 5.1; 3.9; 5.5; 3.8 [NO₃⁻]: 30, 40, 14, 49, 15, 55, 8, 68 ± 10% mg/L [H₂O₂]: 7, 8, 3, 13, 5, 14, 1, 22 ± 5% mg/L During treatment in the modes: Frequency: 150, 250, 60, 250, 60, 250, 250, 250 Hz; Duration: 2, 2, 2, 2, 1.5, 1.5, 2, 2 ms; Airflow: 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2.5, 2.5 L/min; Liquid flow: 10, 10, 20, 3.33, 25, 3.33; 85, 4 L/min, respectively	Wheat (Triticum aestivum) grains	Reduced mitotic activity in wheat sprouts’ cells. Genotoxicity tied to H₂O₂, NO₃⁻ levels. Positive effect on wheat germination	[163]
Underwater discharge	Distilled water	pH: ~3.91 ± 0.03, [O₃]: ~0.25 ± 0.01 mg/L [H₂O₂]: ~7.50 ± 0.05 mg/L [NO₂⁻]: ~4.59 ± 0.04 mg/L [NO₃⁻]: ~26.58 ± 0.25 mg/L	Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)	PAW spraying on potato foliage enhanced growth, enzyme activity, protein and sugar content, and tuber yield.	[164]
Underwater discharge	Distilled water with KH₂PO₄	[H₂O₂]: 100 μM	Spring spelled seeds, spring rye seeds	Improved germination, improved root development.	[165]
(1) Underwater discharge. (2) Plasma torch	(1) Distilled water + KCl (2) Distilled water	(1) pH: 8.3 [H₂O₂]: 7.12 mM [NO_x⁻]: 22.05 mM (2) pH: 4.5 [H₂O₂]: 0.11 mM [NO_x⁻]: 87 mM	Apple tree	Increased primary nutrient content in fruits and leaves. Ca in the fruits increased significantly.	[166]
Underwater discharge	Distilled water + KCl	pH: 8.3 [H₂O₂]: 7.12 mM [NO_x⁻]: 22.05 mM	Sorghum and barley seeds, strawberry crops	Improved germination and crop development. Increased drought resistance.	[167]