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Effect of push–pull semiochemical treatment sources on the Dendroctonus and Ips population. Con. (conspecific), NHV (non-host volatiles), Hetero. (heterospecific), and Host Rep. (host repellent). Error bar shows 95% CI, and (k) indicates the number of studies for each treatment source. The significant levels are denoted as ** for p < 0.01, *** for p < 0.001, and **** for p < 0.0001, and “N. S” in parentheses indicates a non-significant effect of treatment on bark beetle population.
