Table 2.
Taxon | Scientific Name | Common Name | Astaxanthin | Reference | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Form † | Stereoisomer (3R,3′R, meso, 3S,3′S) |
Content (mg/100 g) | Origin | ||||
Bacteria, Prtoteobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria | |||||||
Paracoccus carotinifaciens (w/. mutation) |
PanaFerd-AX | Free form | 3S,3′S |
2180 (50.2% of total Car) |
De novo synthesis |
[329,330] | |
Paracoccus sp. strain N81106 (NBRC 101723) (Agrobacterium auranticum) (w/. mutation) |
N/A | Free form and glycoside | 3S,3′S | ~800 (63.2% of total Car) |
De novo synthesis |
[331] | |
Brevundimonas sp. M7 (w/. mutation) |
N/A | Free form ** | 3S,3′S ** | 130 |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[186] | |
Sphingomonas astaxanthinifaciens TDMA-17 |
N/A | Free form | 3S,3′S ** | 96.0 (34.3% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[182] | |
Paracoccus haeundaensis KCCM 10460 (Co-culture w/. Lactic Acid Bacteria) |
N/A | Free form | 3S,3′S ** | 82.1 |
De novo synthesis |
[332] | |
Paracoccus bogoriensis BOG6T (DSM16578, LMG2279) | N/A | Free form | 3S,3′S | 40 (10.8% of total Car) |
De novo synthesis |
[183] | |
Brevundimonas spp. | N/A | Free form ** | 3S,3′S ** | 2.8~36.5 |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[186] | |
Sphingomicrobium astaxanthinifaciens CC-AMO-30B |
N/A | Free form | 3S,3′S ** | 4.0 |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[185] | |
Brevundimonas sp. strain SD212 (NBRC 101024) |
N/A | Free form | 3S,3′S | N/A (9.9% of total Car) |
De novo synthesis |
[181] | |
Archaea | |||||||
Halobacterium salinarium NRC-1 | N/A | Free form ‡ | N/D | 26.5 (c.a.73% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis * |
[203] | |
Haloarcula hispanica ATCC 33960 | N/A | Free form ‡ | N/D | 1.7 (c.a.1.3% of total Car) |
De novo
Synthesis* |
[203] | |
Eukaryota, Fungi | |||||||
Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (ATCC SD 5340) |
Phaffia Yeast | Free form | 3R,3′R | 723.5~1247.8 (c.a. 73% of total Car) |
De novo synthesis |
[327,333] | |
Eukaryota, Plantae | |||||||
Adonis amurensis (Reddish flower varieties) |
Amur adonis, pheasant’s eye |
Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** |
~3310 (in upper red part of petal) (c.a. 70% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[334] | |
Adonis annua | Autumn pheasant’s eye, blooddrops | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S | 120~1000 (in dry petal) (c.a. 75% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[17,50] | |
Adonis aestivalis | Summer pheasant’s eye | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S | 166 (in wet petal) (87.4% of total Car) |
De novo synthesis |
[265] | |
Eukaryota, Plantae, Chlorophyta | |||||||
Haematococcus lacustris |
Haematococcus pluvilialis, Haematococcus algae |
Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S |
~9800 (in red cyst) (>90% of total Car) |
De novo synthesis |
[64,328] | |
Neochloris wimmeri CCAP-213/4 | N/A | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | ~1920 (c.a 85% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[227,228,232] | |
Asterarcys quadricellulare PUMCC 5.1.1 | N/A | N/A | 3S,3′S** | ~1550 (c.a 13% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[236] | |
Protosiphon botryoides SAG-731/1a | N/A | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S** | ~1430 (c.a 80% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[227,228] | |
Scotiellopsis oocystiformis SAG-277/1 |
N/A | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | ~1090 (c.a 70% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[227,228] | |
Chlorococcum sp. | N/A | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | ~c.a. 700 (c.a. 32% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[335,336,337] | |
Chlorella zofingiensis SAG-211/14 | Chlorella | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | ~680 (c.a. 75% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[227,228] | |
Scenedesmus vacuolatus
SAG-211/15 |
N/A | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | ~270 (40–50% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[227,228] | |
Chlamydocapsa spp. Strain 101-99/R2 |
N/A | N/A | 3S,3′S ** | ~44.4 (20.3% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[338] | |
Neochloris oleoabundans UTEX#1185 | N/A | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | N/A |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[232] | |
Dysmorphococcus globosus-HI | N/A | Free form/ Fatty acid esters |
3S,3′S ** | ~517,090?? |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[243] | |
Eukaryota, Chromista, Bigyra, Labyrinthulomycetes | |||||||
Aurantiochytrium sp. RH-7A-7 (w/. mutation) |
Labyrinthulomycetes | N/A | 3S,3′S ** | -470 (c.a. 85% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis * |
[218] | |
Thraustochytrium sp. CHN-3 (FERM P-18556) |
Labyrinthulomycetes | Free form ** | 3S,3′S ** | ~280 (~60% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis * |
[339] | |
Aurantiochytrium sp. KH-10 | Labyrinthulomycetes | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
3S,3′S ** | ~81 (28% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis * |
[340] | |
Thraustochytrium sp. CHN-1 | Labyrinthulomycetes | Free form | 3S,3′S | 50 (c.a. 50% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis * |
[341,342] | |
Eukaryota, Chromista, Gyrista , Eustigmatales | |||||||
Nannochloropsis gaditana strain S4 (w/. mutation) |
Nannochloropsis | Free form | 3S,3′S? | ~219 (14.4% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis |
[219] | |
Nannochloropsis oculata | Nannochloropsis | Free form | 3S,3′S? | 3.4 ng/106 cells |
De novo Synthesis |
[343] | |
Nannochloropsis salina | Nannochloropsis | Free form | 3S,3′S? | 9.6 ng/106 cells |
De novo Synthesis |
[343] | |
Eukaryota, Excavata, Euglenozoa | |||||||
Euglena sanguinea | Euglena | Fatty acid esters/free |
3S,3′S | ~1.9 (80% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis |
[256,344] | |
Trachelomonas volvocina | Euglena | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
3S,3′S * | N/A |
De novo Synthesis |
[215] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Coelenterata | |||||||
Velella velella | By-the-wind sailor (Jerry fish) |
Free form | Mixtures of stereoisomers |
N/A | Accumulated from dietary Crustaceans | [98] | |
Aurelia aurita | (Jerry fish) | Fee form/ Fatty acid esters (minor) |
N/A | 12.2 (c.a.67% of total Car) |
N/A | [279] | |
Metridium senile var. fimbriatum | Frilled anemone (Sea anemone) |
Fatty acid esters (in ovary) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers |
N/A | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[345,346] | |
Corynactis californica | Strawberry anemone (Sea anemone) |
Fatty acid esters |
N/A | N/A | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[347] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Mollusca , Gastropoda | |||||||
Clione limacina | Sea angel | Free form | 3S,3′S | 0.051 (1.1% of total Car) |
Oxidaive metabolite of zeaxanthin |
[348] | |
Paedoclione doliiformis | Sea angel | Free form | 3S,3′S | 0.8 (5.5% of total Car) |
Oxidaive metabolite of zeaxanthin |
[348] | |
Semisulcospira libertina | Terestorial Snail (Kawanina in Japanese) |
Free form | 3S,3′S | 0.2 (6.5% of total Car) |
Oxidaive metabolite of zeaxanthin | [349] | |
Fushinus perplexu | Spindle shell | Free form | 3S,3′S | 0.2 (4.0% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[350] | |
Pomacea canaliculata | Apple snail | Free form | 3S,3′S | 5.0 in gonad, 2.31 in egg (~75% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[351] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Mollusca , Cephalopoda | |||||||
Octopus vulgaris | Common octopus | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (46:22:32) |
3.2 in liver (c.a.80% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [288] | |
Watasenia scintillans | Firefly squid | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (40:6:54) |
5.0 in liver (>90% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [288] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Mollusca, Polyplacophora | |||||||
Placiphorella japoonica | Chiton | Free form | Mixtures of stereoisomers (5:3:2) |
1.25 (~34% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[352] | |
Acanthochitona defilippii | Chiton | Free form | 3S,3′S | 1.55 in gonad (~4.0% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[352] | |
Liolophura japonica | Chiton | Free form | 3S,3′S | 0.8 in viscera (~10% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[352] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Echinodermata | |||||||
Peronella japonica | Sea urchin | Free form | Mixtures of stereoisomers (3:7:90) |
~3.0 in gonad (c.a.43% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[301] | |
Asteria pectinifera | Starfish | Free form | Mixtures of stereoisomers (50:25:25) |
~1.35 (% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[305] | |
Asterias amurensis | Starfish | Free form | Mixtures of stereoisomers (48:25:27) |
~4.64 (% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[305] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Crustacea, Decapoda (Lobsters, rock lobsters and crawfishes) | |||||||
Procambarus clarkii | Louisiana crawfish | Fatty acid ester/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers | 7.9–19.8 in carapace | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[353] | |
Pontastacus leptodactylus (Astacus leptodactylus) |
Turkish crayfish | Fatty acid esters /Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers ** | 5.0 in carapace 0.13 in muscle 0.98 in intestine (82.5% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene ** |
[354] | |
Panulirus japonicus | Japanese Spiny Lobster (Ise-ebi) |
Free form/ Fatty acid esters |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (20:20:56) |
3.3 in carapace (65% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[355] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Crustacea, Copepoda | |||||||
Tigriopus californicus | Red marine copepod | Free form (major) |
3S,3′S (major) |
~423 | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[290,356] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Crustacea, Eucarida | |||||||
Euphausia superba | Antarctic krill | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
3R,3′R (Major, ~70%) |
~566 in eye | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene ? |
[291,357] | |
Euphausia pacifica | Pacific krill (Isada) | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
3R,3′R (Major) |
~ 252 in eye | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene ? |
[357,358] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Crustacea, Decapoda (Prawns and shrimps) *** | |||||||
Pandalus borealis | Atlantic shrimp (Northern prawn) |
Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (25:52:23) |
~28.48 in carapace | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[62,359,360] | |
Penaeus japonicus | Japanese tiger prawn (Kuruma-ebi) |
Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (12:40:48) |
~13 in carapace | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[361,362] | |
Penaeus semisulcatus | Green tiger prawn | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (19:44:57) |
~15.6 in carapace | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[362] | |
Penaeus monodon | Black tiger prawn | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (16:43:41) |
~7.3 in carapace | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[362] | |
Litopenaeus vannamei | Whiteleg shrimp | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (23:44:32) |
~5.8 in carapace | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[362] | |
Metapenaeus joyneri | Shiba shrimp | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (14:46:40) |
~3.3 in carapace | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[362] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Crustacea, Decapoda , Brachyura (Crabs) *** | |||||||
Chionoecetes japonicus | Red snow crab (Beni-zuwai crab) |
Fatty acid esters/ Free form ** |
Mixtures of stereoisomers ** | ~23 in carapace (with demineralization treatment) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene? |
[363] | |
Chionoecetes opilio | Snow crab (Zuwai crab) |
Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers? | ~11.9 in carapace (~91.7% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene? |
[364] | |
Callinectes sapidus | Blue crab | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers? | ~9.8 (with demineralization treatment) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene? |
[365] | |
Cancer pagurus | Brown crab | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (56:24:20) |
0.37 in carapace | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene? |
[366,367] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Crustacea, Decapoda (Others) *** | |||||||
Paralithodes brevipes | Hanasaki crab | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (26:9:6) |
~2.4 in carapace (~39.9% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[368] | |
Paralithodes camtschaticus | Red king crab | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (45–55:7–19:27–48) |
~0.35 in carapace (~97% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[277,369] | |
Cervimunida princeps | Squat lobster | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (26:9:65) |
~ 0.45 in carapace (~100% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[369] | |
Upogebia major | Japanese mud shrimp | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (72:21:7) |
~ 0.25 in carapace (~100% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[369] | |
Birgus latro | Coconut crab | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (9:41:50) |
~ 0.3 in carapace (~96% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[370] | |
Asellus aquaticus | Isopoda | Free form/ Fatty acid esters? |
N/A | ~0.52 (~37.5% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene? |
[371] | |
Pleuroncodes planipes | Red crab langostilla | Fatty acid esters/ Free form |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (3–4:1:3–4) |
N/A | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene? |
[372] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Arachnida, Acari | |||||||
Balaustium murorum | Red velvet mite | Free form/ Fatty acid esters |
3S,3′S ** |
~61,530 mg/ 100 g protein (60% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of zeaxanthin (De novo
Synthesis **) |
[373] | |
Panonychus citri | Citrus red mite | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | ~263 mg/ 100 g protein (42.5% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[374] | |
Tetranychus kanzawai | Kanzawa spider mite | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | Undefined |
De novo Synthesis |
[375] | |
Tetranychus urticae | Two-spotted spider mite | Fatty acid esters | 3S,3′S ** | Undefined |
De novo Synthesis |
[296,376] | |
Eylais hamata | Hydracarina | Free form/ Fatty acid esters (minor) |
N/A | 12.2 (c.a.67% of total Car) |
N/A | [377] | |
Eylais extendens | Hydracarina | N/A | N/A | Undefined (c.a.70% of total Car) |
N/A | [378] | |
Schizonobia sycophanta | Parasite mite | Fatty acid ester | 3S,3′S | Undefined (30% of total Car) |
De novo Synthesis ** |
[49,289] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Arachnida, Araneae | |||||||
Trichonephila clavata | Arachnida spider | ?? | Mixtures of stereoisomers (2:1:1) |
0.02 (1.9% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene | [299] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Arthropoda, Insecta | |||||||
Locusta migratoria | Migratory locust | Free form | Mixtures of stereoisomers (2:1:1) |
0.25 in brown form (12.5% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene | [16,293] | |
Aiolopus thalassinus tamulus | Grasshopper | Free form | Mixtures of stereoisomers (2:1:1) |
0.09 in brown form (3.0% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene | [293] | |
Schistocerca gregaria | Desert locust | Free form | Mixtures of stereoisomers * |
N/A | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene | [16] | |
Animals (Vertebrate), Fish (Salmonidae) | |||||||
Oncorhynchus nerka (Wild, anadromous form) |
Sockeye salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (depending on AX source) |
2.6–3.8 in muscle in egg (% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [308] | |
Oncorhynchus nerka (Wild, non-anadromous form) |
Kokanee salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (depending on AX source) |
−0.8 in muscle 0.4–2.8 in skin −1.1 in golnad (−94% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [379,380] | |
Oncorhynchus kisutch | Coho salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (depending on AX source) |
1.0–2.1 in muscle in egg (% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [308] | |
Salvelinus alpinus (Wild) |
Arctic char | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (depending on AX source) |
0.86 in muscle in egg (−30% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [308,381] | |
Salmo salar (Wild) |
Atlantic salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (depending on AX source) |
0.6–0.8 in muscle in egg (% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [308,382] | |
Oncorhynchus keta | Chum salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mainly 3S,3′S (in ovary) |
0.1–0.5 in muscle −0.7 in egg 0.1 in skin (male) (4.8–90% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [28,29,308,383] | |
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha | Pink salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers | 0.4–0.7 in muscle in egg (% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [308] | |
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha | Chinook salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers | 0.54 in muscle in egg (% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [308] | |
Oncorhynchus masou (Wild, anadromous form) |
Masu salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers | 0.3–0.8 in muscle 0.03–0.8 in skin 0.7–1.7 in egg (1.9–80% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [308,380,384] | |
Oncorhynchus masou ishikawae (Wild, anadromous form) |
Red-spotted masu salmon | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers | 0.2 in muscle trace in skin N/D in egg (1.9–68.5% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [380] | |
Oncorhynchus masou rhodurus | Biwa trout | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers |
0.2 in muscle −0.1 in skin (3.2–58.3% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [380] | |
Oncorhynchus mykiss (Wild, pigmented phenotype) |
Rainbow trout | Free form (muscle/egg)/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers |
trace in muscle 0.8 in skin trace in egg (1.9–42.3% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [385] | |
Animals (Vertebrate), Fish (Non-Salmonidae ) | |||||||
Sebastolobus macrochir | Broadbanded thornyhead (Kichiji rockfish) |
Fatty acid esters (skin) |
N/A | 26 in skin (>90% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans or Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin? |
[386] | |
Plectropomus leopardus | Coral trout (Suziara) |
Fatty acid esters/ Free form (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (13:7:80) |
19.5 in skin (84.8% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans or Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin? |
[387] | |
Epinephelus fasciatus | Blacktip grouper (Akahata) |
Fatty acid esters (skin) |
N/A | 2.27 in skin (74% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans or Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin? |
[386] | |
Beryx splendens | Splendid alfonsino (Kinmedai) |
Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers | 0.9 in skin (c.a. 100% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans or Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin? |
[386] | |
Pagrus malor | Red sea bream (Madai) |
Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (38:0:62) |
~2 in skin (wild) 0.25 in skin (firmed w/o. AX) / 0.98 (firmed with. AX) (~c.a 45% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans and supplementary pigment | [277,386,388] | |
Carassius auratus | Goldfish (Kingyo/Hibuna) |
Free/ Fatty acid esters (skin) |
3S,3′S | 0.58 (whole body) (~47% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin |
[307] | |
Branchiostegus japonicus | Red tilefish (Red amadai) |
Fatty acid esters (skin) |
Mixtures of stereoisomers (24:24:52) |
0.39 in skin (35.8% of total Car) |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans | [389] | |
Animals (Vertebrate), Amphibian | |||||||
Cynops pyrrhogaster | Japanese newt | Free form/ Fatty acid esters |
N/A | 4.55 in skin (c.a.21% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin |
[309] | |
Salamandra salamandra | Fire salamander | Free form/ Fatty acid esters |
N/A | 0.23 (37.5% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin |
[390] | |
Lissotriton vulgaris (Triturus vulgaris) |
Smooth newt/common newt | Free form | N/A | 0.1 (−23.5% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin |
[390] | |
Ranitomeya sirensis | Sira poison frog | Free form/ Fatty acid esters ? |
N/A | N/A (-c.a. 40% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin |
[294] | |
Bufo bufo | Common toad | Free form/ Fatty acid esters |
N/A | N/D in muscle and liver 0.02 in skin 0.35 in intestine (25.8–57.4% of total Car) 0.23 in gonads (95.8% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin |
[390] | |
Bufotes viridis
(Bufo viridis) |
European green toad | Free form/ Fatty acid esters |
N/A | N/D in muscle and liver 0.02 in skin 0.35 in intestine (25.8–57.4% of total Car) 0.23 in gonads (95.8% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin |
[391] | |
Pelobates fuscus | European common spadefoot toad | Free form | N/A | 1.1 in liver (19.6% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene/ zeaxanthin ** |
[390] | |
Melanophryniscus rubriventris | (Aposematic poison toad) | N/A (Free form/ ester form?) |
N/A | Undefined | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene ** |
[392] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Reptile | |||||||
Chlamydosaurus kingii. (the western red-frilled form) |
Frillneck lizard | N/A (Free form?) |
N/A | Undefined | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[312] | |
Chrysemys picta | Painted turtle | N/A | N/A | c.a 0.11 in leg skin | Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[393] | |
Trachemys scripta | Red-eared slider | N/A | N/A |
c.a 0.06 in skin around eye spot |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene |
[393] | |
Animals (Invertebrate), Aves *** | |||||||
Lagopus lagopus scoticus | Red grouse | Free form/ Fatty acid esters |
N/A | 317.8 in combs N/D in plasma (-c.a.81.6% of total Car) |
Oxidative metabolite of β-carotene | [394] | |
Pygoscelis papua | Gentoo penguins | Free form | N/A | 2.19 in blood, breeding adults and chicks |
Accumulated from dietary crustaceans, fishes | [395,396] |
The respective number was quoted from the reference(s), and it may vary depending on the collection location and season.†, the presence of binding forms to carotenoproteins would not be mentioned in this table; ‡, the identification method of the compounds remains uncertain; *, the biosynthetic pathways have not been fully characterized; **, based on the information on close species/genus; N/A; not available; N/D; not detected.*** Since astaxanthin is diversely found in the skin, feathers, and retinas of birds, only the characteristic reports are described. ?; based on the information on close taxa. For the details of distribution in avian species, see the other review [314].