Table 6.

Main dysbiotic events that occur in GM during the onset and progression of kidney diseases.

Kidney Disease	Main Dysbiotic Events	Reference
Chronic kidney disease (CKD)	-Patients with CDK display increased gut levels of Lachnospiraceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococci, Clostridium perfringes, and certain Ruminococcaceae, and decreased levels of Prevotellaceae, Bacteroidaceae, and in particular, Lactobacillus and Bifdobacterium species -Ruminococcus exhibits strong discriminatory capability in distinguishing early-stage CKD patients from healthy controls -Relative abundance of Proteobacteria increased gradually with the severity of CKD	[233,234,239,240]
Kidney stone (KS) disease	-Individuals with KS exhibited higher levels of Bacteroides and Escherichia_Shigella and a lower abundance of Prevotella_9 -Bacteroides, Phascolarctobacterium, Faecalibacterium, Flavobacterium, Akkermansia, Lactobacillus, Escherichia coli, Rhodobacter, and Gordonia served as markers for the detection of KS -Involvement of the GM in KS formation	[247,250,251]
Renal cell carcinoma (RCC)	-Significant alterations in the GM distribution between the RCC patients and the healthy controls -Contribution of GM dysbiosis to the formation of kidney stones, subsequently leading to an increased risk of RCC	[242,255,257]