Table 3.

Prevention and detoxification strategies of AFs.

Rationale	Advantages	Treatment	Conditions (Measures/Reagents)	Pre-Harvest	Storage	Processing/Mixing	Feeding	References
Agricultural Prevention
Interventions that prevent/deplete fungi infection or inhibit AFs production.	Prevention Low cost High durability	GAPs	tillage—farming planning crop rotation fertilizers biostimulants	×				[179]
		Pesticides	azoles boscalid azoxystrobin cyprodinil fludioxonil	×	×			[185] [186]
		Transgenic crops	GMO RNA interferences CRISPR	×				[152,153,154,155]
			Atoxigenic A. spp strains	×				[155,156,157,158]
		Bioremediation of fields	degradation transformation	×				[170]
Physical Methods
Interventions that permit to remove infected/contaminated commodities or kill/inactivate fungi and spores	Standardized protocol High efficacy, No harmful residues produced	Irradiation	gamma radiation UV lights X-rays Electrons	×	×	×		[188] [189] [183]
		Drying/Thermal treatment	microwave conventional heating		×	×		[181]
		Separation/sorting	manual sieves washing light-interaction-based devices		×	×		[179] [180]
Chemical Methods
Segregation, deactivation and degradation of AFs	Low cost	Ammonia	gaseous or liquid ammonia (usually 1.5–2%) alone for long time (until 15 days) or combined with other techniques	×	×	×		[36]
		Ozonisation	ozone 1.1–90 mg/l for a variable time (5 min–96 h)	×	×	×		[186] [187]
		Alkalinization	potassium or sodium hydroxide ammonium carbonate		×	×		[189]
		Acidification	lactic acid propionic acid hydrochloric acid acetic acid citric acid phosphoric acid tartaric acid sorbic acid		×	×		[181]
		Nixtamalization	Cooking heat treatment+ alkaline solution (NaHCO3 and Ca(OH)2) + H2O2		×	×		[189] [189]
		Active substances	turmeric powder curcumin resveratrol lycopene chitosan	×	×	×	×	[190]
		Feed additives	acids antioxidants polymers sodium bisulfite		×	×	×	[116]
		Adsorbents	clays activated charcoal bentonite montmorillonite, zeolite, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate, kaolin, illite	×	×	×	×	[189] [190]
Biological Methods
Inoculation of microbial strains in feed substrates.	Biodegradability Biosafety effectiveness regenerability	Bacteria	Bacillus spp. Lactobacillus spp.	×	×	×		[187] [187]
		Yeast and Fungi	Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rhizopus oligosporus Zygosaccharomyces rouxii	×	×	×		[189] [188]
		Microorganism exudates/supernatants	Lactobacillus spp.	×	×	×		[190]
		Enzymes	laccase manganese peroxidase oxidase	×	×	×	×	[188]

× Applied method phase for AFs prevention/detoxification. CRISPR: clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats; GAPs: Good agricultural practices; GMO: genetically modified organism; NaHCO₃: sodium hydrogen carbonate; Ca(OH)₂: calcium hydroxide; H₂O₂: hydrogen peroxide.