Table 2.

Specific information regarding CS bioactivities.

Bioactivity	Component	Biological Effects	Ref.
Anti-inflammation	CS	Repress the expression of genes encoding proteolytic enzymes; inhibit IL-1β-induced expression of the pro-inflammatory genes iNOS and COX-2 and restores TGF-β receptors I and II mRNA levels.	[180]
Anti-thrombus	CS-E	Enhances plasminogen activation.	[181]
Anti-coagulation	O-sulfonated CS	Increases anti-factor IIa activity and anti-factor Xa activity.	[182]
Anti-oxidation	CS and CS–metal complex	Enhance hydroxyl radical or superoxide radical scavenging activity.	[133]
Anti-tumor	CS-C	Influences tumor-associated inflammation; affects NF-κB signaling and cell behavior and regulates cytokine/chemokine activity.	[183]
Anti-viral	CS-E	Interferes with the binding of viral gC to a CS-E-like receptor on the cell surface.	[167]
Anti-diabetes	CS	Reduces the digestion of carbohydrates; reduces hyperglycemia.	[184]
Anti-obesity	CS	Ameliorates obesity; prevents the gaining of body weight, liver weight, and adipose tissue weight; maintains lower food consumption; inhibits the intestinal absorption of triglyceride; adjusts the serum endotoxin level.	[18]
Neuroprotective	CS sodium salt	Downregulates P-Ser129 α-synuclein and total α-synuclein expression; inhibits ROS overproduction and changes mitochondrion-mediated apoptotic pathways.	[185]
Wound healing	CS aerogel	High hydration and rapid setting to the wound bed.	[186]
Proliferation and bone formation	CS and Glucosamine	Proliferates chondrocytes; increases remaining cartilage and trabecula.	[187]
Protective bladder barrier	CS	Contributes to urothelial barrier function.	[188]