Table 2.
Protein composition of EVs isolated from callus culture of A. thaliana.
| Name of Protein | Protein Function | Occurrence in Plant EVs |
|---|---|---|
| Stress responses | ||
| Heat shock 70 kDa protein (HSP70) | Folds de novo synthesized proteins and protect cells from heat stress conditions. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18], C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], juices from ginger [30], citrus [65], tomato [66], broccoli [67], and grape [68] |
| GDSL esterase/lipase (ESM1) | Regulation of biotic and abiotic stress responses. Possesses antimicrobial and antifungal activities. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18], C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], and juice from ginger [30] |
| Myrosinase 2 (BGL37) | Involved in the abscisic acid signaling pathway and has redundant functions in glucosinolate breakdown and insect defense. | Juice from ginger [30] |
| Germin-like protein subfamily 3 member 1 (GL31) | Manganese ion binding. May play a role in plant defense. | - |
| Vegetative storage protein 1 (VSP1) | Involved in the jasmonic acid signaling pathway and plays a role in defense against herbivorous insects. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18] |
| Polygalacturonase inhibitor 1 (PGIP1) | Inhibits the pectin-depolymerizing activity of polygalacturonases secreted by microbial pathogens and insects. | C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], juices from ginger [30] and citrus [65] |
| CCR4-associated factor 1 homolog 4 (CAF1D) | Shows mRNA deadenylation activity and plays a role in plant defense responses to pathogen infections. | - |
| Cell wall remodeling | ||
| UDP-arabinopyranose mutases 1–4 (RGP1, RGP2, RGP3, and RGP4) | Converts UDP-arabinopyranose to UDP-arabinofuranose for cell wall and natural product biosynthesis; also plays a role in the pollen development process. | C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], juices from citrus [65], tomato [66], and broccoli [67] |
| Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase protein 11 (XTH11) | Participates in cell wall biogenesis, organization, and the xyloglucan metabolic process. | Juices from ginger [30], C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], and tomato [66] |
| Alpha-xylosidase 1 (XYL1) | Regulation and maintenance of cell wall physical properties. | C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26] and juice from ginger [30] |
| Beta-glucosidases 22 and 23 (BGL22 and BGL23) | Facilitates the hydrolysis of terminal, non-reducing beta-D-glucosyl residues, resulting in the release of beta-D-glucose. It also plays a role in plant protection by releasing scopoletin and other active compounds under both biotic and abiotic stress conditions. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18], C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], juices from ginger [30], citrus [65], and tomato [66] |
| Various metabolic pathways | ||
| Sucrose synthase 4 (SUS4) | Sucrose-cleaving enzyme that provides UDP-glucose and fructose for various metabolic pathways. | C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], juices from ginger [30], citrus [65], and tomato [66] |
| Beta carbonic anhydrase 1 (BCA1) | Facilitates the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide, essential for photosynthesis in cotyledons, and is involved in the CO2 signaling pathway. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18], juices from ginger [30], citrus [65], and tomato [66] |
| Phosphoglycerate kinase 3 (PGKY3) | Catalyzes reactions in glycolysis and plays a crucial role in carbohydrate metabolism. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18], C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], juices from ginger [30], citrus [65], and grape [68] |
| Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase GAPC1 (G3PC1) | Participates in the photosynthetic reductive pentose phosphate pathway, crucial for maintaining cellular ATP levels and carbohydrate metabolism. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18], C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], juices from ginger [30], citrus [65], and tomato [66] |
| Nitrilase 1 and 2 (NRL1 and NRL2) | Plays a key role in the biosynthesis of the plant hormone auxin. It also aids in detoxifying harmful nitriles. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18], juices from ginger [30] and citrus [65] |
| EP1-like glycoprotein 3 (EP1L3) | A protein from the curculin-like lectin family that may be involved in a cell-to-cell programmed cell death (PCD) signaling mechanism. | A. thaliana leaf apoplastic fluid [18], C. plantagineum in vitro cultured cells [26], and juice from ginger [30] |