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. 2023 Oct 12;11(10):1585. doi: 10.3390/vaccines11101585

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Strategies to improve the delivery, penetration, uptake, and immunogenicity of respiratory mucosal vaccines. Vaccines targeting the respiratory mucosa can be delivered nasally (drops, spray, or inhalation) or orally (drops, oral inhalation, aqueous drink, or capsule/tablet). The target antigens can be delivered as nucleic acid or protein subunit vaccines packaged in different lipid/non-lipid nanoparticles or by traditional live-attenuated or inactivated whole virus vaccines. Post-COVID, the adenoviral vector system has gained interest as an intranasal/inhaled vaccine delivery platform. Facilitating antigen delivery by nanoparticles involves mucoadhesive, mucopenetrating, or mucolytic strategies. Created with BioRender.com.