Table 1. Baseline Characteristics of the Study Participantsa.
| Characteristic | Participant group | Study completion | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TRE (n = 25) | CR (n = 25) | Control (n = 25) | All (N = 75) | Completed (n = 69) | Dropped out (n = 6) | |
| Age, y | 56 (13) | 55 (13) | 54 (11) | 55 (12) | 56 (12) | 46 (10) |
| Sex, No. (%) | ||||||
| Women | 18 (72) | 17 (68) | 18 (72) | 53 (71) | 51 (74) | 2 (33) |
| Men | 7 (28) | 8 (32) | 7 (28) | 22 (29) | 18 (26) | 4 (67) |
| Race and ethnicity, No. (%) | ||||||
| Asian | 0 | 1 (4) | 0 | 1 (1) | 0 | 1 (17) |
| Hispanic White | 10 (40) | 9 (36) | 11 (44) | 30 (40) | 27 (39) | 3 (50) |
| Non-Hispanic Black | 12 (48) | 14 (56) | 14 (56) | 40 (53) | 38 (55) | 2 (33) |
| Non-Hispanic White | 3 (12) | 1 (4) | 0 | 4 (5) | 4 (6) | 0 |
| T2D duration, y | 15 (11) | 14 (9) | 12 (9) | 14 (9) | 14 (9) | 5 (4) |
| Diabetes medications, No. (%) | ||||||
| Oral hypoglycemic agents | ||||||
| Metformin | 21 (84) | 19 (76) | 21 (84) | 61 (81) | 57 (83) | 4 (67) |
| DPP-4 inhibitors | 0 | 4 (16) | 1 (4) | 5 (7) | 5 (7) | 0 |
| SGLT-2 inhibitors | 9 (36) | 1 (4) | 5 (20) | 15 (20) | 14 (20) | 1 (17) |
| GLP-1 receptor agonists | 8 (32) | 5 (20) | 6 (24) | 19 (25) | 18 (26) | 1 (17) |
| Sulfonylureas | 2 (8) | 7 (28) | 2 (8) | 11 (15) | 9 (13) | 2 (33) |
| Insulin | 13 (52) | 4 (16) | 9 (36) | 26 (35) | 25 (36) | 1 (17) |
| Medication effect scoreb | ||||||
| Oral hypoglycemic agents | 1.3 (0.7) | 1.0 (0.8) | 1.3 (0.9) | 1.2 (0.8) | 1.2 (0.8) | 1.2 (1.1) |
| Insulin | 0.5 (0.7) | 0.2 (0.5) | 0.3 (0.6) | 0.4 (0.6) | 0.4 (0.6) | 0.2 (0.6) |
| Body weight, kg | 105 (25) | 104 (17) | 107 (22) | 105 (21) | 105 (22) | 108 (16) |
| Height, cm | 165 (7) | 166 (10) | 165 (8) | 165 (8) | 165 (8) | 171 (10) |
| BMI | 39 (9) | 38 (5) | 39 (7) | 39 (7) | 39 (7) | 37 (4) |
| HbA1c level, % | 8.3 (2.0) | 8.1 (1.5) | 7.9 (1.3) | 8.1 (1.6) | 8.0 (1.6) | 8.6 (1.7) |
| Time in euglycemic range, % | 63 (30) | 60 (30) | 62 (32) | 62 (30) | 64 (30) | 37 (15) |
| Glucose level, mg/dL | 180 (47) | 183 (59) | 177 (58) | 180 (54) | 178 (56) | 203 (20) |
| Body composition | ||||||
| Fat mass, kg | 43 (10) | 49 (10) | 47 (14) | 46 (11) | 46 (12) | 46 (9) |
| Lean mass, kg | 54 (13) | 52 (10) | 53 (10) | 53 (11) | 52 (9) | 56 (20) |
| Visceral fat mass, kg | 1.9 (0.7) | 2.5 (1.0) | 2.2 (0.9) | 2.2 (0.9) | 2.2 (0.9) | 2.4 (1.3) |
| Waist circumference, cm | 117 (13) | 120 (9) | 121 (15) | 120 (13) | 120 (13) | 118 (10) |
| Blood pressure, mm Hg | ||||||
| SBP | 135 (17) | 137 (17) | 131 (20) | 134 (18) | 134 (18) | 135 (19) |
| DBP | 85 (12) | 87 (13) | 85 (9) | 86 (11) | 85 (11) | 90 (15) |
| Heart rate, bpm | 78 (14) | 79 (13) | 80 (12) | 79 (13) | 78 (13) | 85 (14) |
| Plasma lipid levels, mg/dL | ||||||
| Total cholesterol | 164 (44) | 171 (43) | 163 (39) | 166 (42) | 165 (43) | 174 (27) |
| LDL cholesterol | 90 (37) | 92 (36) | 94 (37) | 92 (36) | 92 (37) | 94 (24) |
| HDL cholesterol | 48 (12) | 48 (14) | 47 (9) | 48 (12) | 48 (12) | 42 (6) |
| Triglycerides | 130 (58) | 144 (64) | 121 (37) | 132 (55) | 127 (50) | 189 (75) |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared); bpm, beats per minute; CR, calorie restriction; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; DPP-4, dipeptidyl peptidase 4; GLP-1, glucagonlike peptide-1; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SGLT-2, sodium-glucose transport protein 2; T2D, type 2 diabetes; TRE, time-restricted eating.
SI conversion factors: To convert cholesterol to mmol/L, multiply by 0.0258; glucose to mmol/L, multiply by 0.0555; HbA1c to proportion of total hemoglobin, multiply by 0.01; triglycerides to mmol/L, multiply by 0.0113.
Unless otherwise indicated, data are expressed as mean (SD).
Calculated as (actual drug dose/maximum drug dose) × drug mean adjustment factor. A higher score corresponded to a higher dose of diabetes medication, and a reduction corresponded to a reduction in diabetes medication.