Table 8.

Clinical evidence summary for main outcomes of RCTs

Study ID	Intervention vs control (no. of participants)	Outcome/instrument(s)	P value
Lam et al. (2012) [25]	TC (n = 92) vs muscle-stretching and toning exercises (n = 169)	1) Progression to dementia: DSM-IV criteria	.06/.04*
		2) Depressive symptoms: The Cornell Scale for Depression (CSDD)	.17/.02*
		3) Changes in neuropsychiatric symptoms: The Chinese Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI)	.41/.14*
		4) Balance: The Berg Balance Scale (BBS)	.05/.02*
Okuyan and Deveci (2020) [26]	TC (n = 20) vs not subjected to any physical practice (n = 22)	1) Risk of falling in people with MCI: TAT includes:
		- Tinetti balance assessment	0.000
		- Tinetti gait assessment	0.000
		2) Status of physical activity in people with MCI: PASE	0.000
		3) Fear of movement: TSK with 17 items	0.000
		4) Behaviours related to falls in people with MCI: The FaB scale	0.000
Sungkarat et al. (2017) [27]	TC (n = 33) vs educational material covering information related to cognitive impairment and fall prevention (n = 33)	1) Executive function was assessed using:
		- Digit Span forward	0.43
		- Digit Span backward	0.43
		- Block design score	0.01
		2) Composite fall-risk and component scores: Physiological Profile Assessment (PPA) comprises a series of 5 sensorimotor assessments:	0.015
		- Edge contrast sensitivity	0.21
		- Lower limb proprioception	0.002
		- Knee extension strength	0.008
		- Hand reaction time	0.04
		- Postural sway	0.009
Sungkarat et al. (2018) [28]	TC (n = 29) vs educational material covering information related to cognitive impairment and fall prevention (n = 27)	1) Memory: Logical Memory (LM) delayed recall	0.01
		2) Visuospatial ability: Block Design Test	0.06
		3) Secondary outcomes:
		- Plasma BDNF (Brain-derived neurotrophic factor)	0.04
		- TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-α)	0.50
		- IL-10 levels (interleukin-10)	0.29
Tsai et al. (2013) [29]	TC (n = 28) vs health education, culture-related activities, and other social activities (e.g. sharing travel experiences, hobbies, and collections) (n = 27)	1) WOMAC was used to measure:
		- subjective pain	0.006
		- physical functioning	0.021
		- stiffness	0.010
		2) A modified Get Up and Go (GUG) test	0.126
		3) Sit-to-Stand (STS) test	0.728
Tsai et al. (2015) [30]	TC (n = 28) vs attention control education group (instructor-led educational activities) (n = 27)	1) The verbal descriptive scale (VDS)	0.032
		2) Observation of pain behaviour	0.522
		3) Analgesic intake	0.062

Abbreviations: ADAS-cog Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale-cognitive, CDR-SOB Clinical Dementia Rating Scale Sum of Boxes, FaB The Falls Behavioural scale, PASE Population Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly, TSK The Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia, WOMAC The Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Arthritis Index

^*Group difference at 1 year (p values, intention to treat analysis/per protocol analysis)