Table 1. Target genes, epigenetic modifications and functional outcomes.
POMC=pro-opiomelanocortin; NPY=neuropeptide Y; ADRB3=Beta-3 adenoreceptor; H3K9=histone-3 lysine-9; ILGF2=insulin-like growth factor2; SLC6A4=solute carrier family serotonin transporter6A4; HIF3A=hypoxia-inducible factor3A; TNF=tumor necrosis factor; H3K18=histone-3 lysine-18; MC4R=melanocortin-4 receptor; T3-TRb=triiodothyronine-thyroid receptor-b; TRE=thyroid receptor binding element; H3K27=histone-3 lysine-27; HOXA3=homeobox A3; ACAD10=acyl-CoA dehydrogenase-10; lncRNA=long noncoding RNA; NEAT1=nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript-1; mIR-140=micro RNA-140; lncRNA betalinc1=beta long intergenic noncoding RNA1; RIOT=regulator of insulin transcription; PPAR-gamma=peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma; LPL=lipoportein lipase; G3PDH=glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase; PGC1α=PPAR-gamma coactivator 1-alpha; SLC6A3=solute carrier family-3; PENK=pre-proenkephalin; MAPK4=mitogen activated protein kinase-4; NRF1=nuclear respiratory factor-1; FASN=fatty acid synthase
| Target gene | Epigenetic modification | Functional outcomes |
| POMC | Hypermethylated | Inhibits satiety |
| Decreased acetylation of H3K9 related to POMC | Increased food intake | |
| NPY | Hypomethylated | Increases hunger and food intake |
| Increased acetylation of H3K9 related to NPY | ||
| ADRB3 | Reduced activity of ADRB3 | Abnormal lipolysis, increased lipid storage, and obesity. |
| ILGF2 | Hypomethylation of ILGF2 | Increased BMI |
| SLC6A4 | Increased methylation of the SLC6A4 promotor region | Obesity |
| HIF3A | Increased methylation | Obesity associated with breathing disorders |
| TNF | Increased histone acetylation at H3K9 and H3K18 leads to increased TNF expression | Mediates insulin resistance |
| MC4R | Increased association of T3-TRb complexes with TREs at H3K27 in the MC4R promoter region reduces the MC4R expression and leads to reduced MSH activity | Overeating |
| HOXA3 and ACAD10 | Two lncRNAs, AK133540 and AK142386 modulate the interactions of transcription factors with their target genes | Lipogenesis |
| NEAT1 or miR-140 | miR-140 upregulates the expression of NEAT1 | Adipogenesis |
| lncRNA betalinc1 | Regulates transcription factors associated with pancreatic islet cells | Alters glucose metabolism leading to obesity |
| RIOT Nkx6.1 | Downregulation of RIOT results in increased methylation of the promoter region of Nkx6.1, a transcription factor crucial for the differentiation, development, and function of pancreatic beta cells | Obesity-induced diabetes |
| PPAR-gamma | Increased DNA methylation of the transcription factor PPAR-gamma | Dysregulated lipid metabolism, insulin resistance, and obesity |
| PPAR-gamma activation is associated with increased expression of fetal LPL and G3PDH | Activation of adipogenesis and lipogenesis influencing the development of subcutaneous fat | |
| PGC1α interacts with transcription factors to enhance the transcription of PPAR-gamma | Dysregulates lipid and glucose metabolism | |
| SLC6A3 | Hypermethylation of the SLC6A3 gene decreases the SLC6A3 membrane protein, causing prolonged dopamine activity | Overeating even when aware of the negative consequences |
| PENK | Hypomethylation of the PENK promoter corresponding to increased proenkephalin | Causing overeating in offspring |
| MAPK4 | Hypomethylation of MAPK4 gene | Increased body weight, hyperglycemia, and insulin resistance in offspring |
| NRF1 | Decreased DNA methylation of the NRF1 gene, a transcription factor | Affects various metabolic genes |
| FASN | Increased methylation of the FASN gene | Reduces circulating lipids and the improves metabolic function |