FIGURE 4.

Schematic representation of the critical role of peripheral exosomes in the communication between neural cells. Exosomes, derived from external sources, like the lung, gut, skeletal muscle and various stem cell types, can traverse the blood–brain barrier and be taken up by neurons and glial cells in the central nervous system. Exosomes, as illustrated in Figure 1, possess a range of constituents that can be applied to reduce misfolded proteins, inflammation, tissue injury, and diseases. In cases of injury, including stroke or TBI, exosomes can enhance synaptic activity, neural survival, neurite outgrowth, and neurogenesis while limiting microglial activation, thus, providing neuroprotective benefits. MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells; ADMSCs, adipose‐derived mesenchymal stem cells; BMSCs, bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stem cells; huMSCs, human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells; DP‐MSCs, dental pulp mesenchymal stem/stromal cells; iPSCs, induced pluripotent stem cells; ESCs, embryonic stem cells.