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. 2023 Oct 17;11:1228632. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1228632

Table 5.

Studies examining the association between parental SES and diet habits.

SN Authors Methodology description Findings Key strengths and limitations Quality score
Study design Sample size (n) Continent/country Age range SES measure Method of analysis
1 Mikki et al. (2010) Cross-sectional survey 2,952 Palestine 13–15 years Parental education The multivariate linear regression model Adolescents with higher parental education were more likely to have a healthier dietary pattern compared to those with lower parental education Awareness of health risks associated with poor dietary choices. This awareness can motivate them to emphasize healthy eating in their households. One potential constraint of this study is the utilization of self-reported responses, which has the potential to impact both the validity and reliability of the findings. 8
2 Yannakoulia et al. (2016) Cross-sectional, National representative 11,717 Greece 3–18 years SES Classification–regression tree analysis (CART) model Children and adolescents from low SES backgrounds had lower consumption of dairy products and daily breakfast than those from high SES backgrounds. Similarly, low SES adolescents had lower consumption of dairy products and daily breakfast than their high SES peers. Lower-educated parents may have less knowledge about the nutritional benefits. So, they may not prioritize healthy foods in their children’s diets. However, self-reported adolescent behavioral patterns can make it difficult to estimate the inclusive results. 8
3 Richter et al. (2009a) Cross-national survey 97,721 Europe (n = 30), Asia (n = 1), North America (n = 2) 13–15 years SES The multilevel logistic regression model Adolescents with low SES had a reduced likelihood of consuming breakfast (OR boys: 0.75, 95% CI: 0.66–0.86; OR girls: 0.83, 95% CI: 0.75–0.93) compared to those with high SES Economic constraints limit their access to a variety of nutritious breakfast options. However, the findings were influenced by the way physical activity is measured or reported leading to unusual results. 8
4 Poulain et al. (2019) Longitudinal 1,223 German 3–18 years SES Mixed-effect models Children (β: 0.05, 95% CI −0.03 to 0.13) and adolescents (β: 0.10, 95% CI: 0.01–0.18) in higher-SES were more likely to consume nutritious food compared to those in lower-SES families Education and nutrition knowledge emphasize the importance of fruits, vegetables, and other healthy food items. However, this study may have limited representativeness across socioeconomic classes, potentially limiting its broader applicability. 9
5 Vereecke et al. (2005) Cross-national 114,558 28 European countries 11–15 years SES Multiple regression model Children and adolescents with high SES were more likely to consume a higher number of soft drinks (OR: 1.257, 95% CI: 1.211–1.305) compared to their peers. Higher disposable may have greater purchasing power for non-essential items. Due to the poor classification of data measurement draws a poor conclusion. 6
6 Sinai et al. (2021) Cross-sectional 3,902 Isreal 11–18 years SES Multiple regression model Adolescents with higher SES had a higher consumption of plant-based foods, cereals, milk, and spreads (OR Plant-based food: 1.50, 95% CI: 1.23–1.82, OR Cereals and milk: 1.10, 95% CI: 0.91–1.33) compared to those with lower SES. Access to resources and health consciousness make easier for people from high SES backgrounds to incorporate these foods into their diets. However, self-reported information could influence the results. 8
7 Yang (2021) Longitudinal 1,040 South Korea 10–11 years SES Multiple linear regression model Children from higher parental SES levels were more likely to consume healthy food (β = 0.07, p = 0.018) compared to their peers. Parents prioritize healthy eating behaviors which are more likely to adopt similar habits to their children. However, this study limits the causal inferences 10
8 Esquius et al. (2021) Cross-sectional 7,319 Spain 12–18 years SES Multilevel Poisson regression models Adolescents with low SES were at a higher risk of skipping breakfast (PR boys: 1.28, 95% CI: 1.04–1.58; PR girls: 1.30, 95% CI: 1.12–1.52) compared to their peers Time and routine constraints can make it difficult to prioritize breakfast. Self-reported adolescent diet patterns can be difficult to assess because of social desirability bias. 8
9 Park and Hwang (2017) Cross-sectional 72,435 South-Korea 13–18 years SES Multivariate logistic regression The odds of skipping breakfast were significantly higher (OR: 1.433, 95% CI: 1.347–1.523) for adolescents with low parental SES compared to those with high parental SES. Food insecurity can result in irregular meal patterns, including breakfast-skipping. Nevertheless, there are certain methodological limitations in the study 8
10 Voráčová et al. (2016) Cross-sectional 10,831 Czech Republic 11–15 years SES Logistic regression Children and adolescents from higher parental SES backgrounds had lower odds of consuming sweets (OR: 0.79, 95% CI: 0.69–0.90) and soft drinks (OR: 0.41, 95% CI: 0.31–0.53) compared to their peers. Parental monitoring can lead to healthier food choices for their children. However, eating habits as reported may have been influenced by social desirability bias. 8
11 Johansen et al. (2006) Cross-sectional 3,458 Denmark 14–16 years Maternal occupation GEE logistic regression Adolescents with unemployed mothers had significantly higher odds of irregular breakfast consumption (OR: 1.56, 95% CI: 1.06–2.29) compared to their peers. Unemployment can lead to food insecurity in the household. In such cases, adolescents may skip meals, including breakfast. However, the study did not provide a clear pattern of how SES contributes to eating a healthy diet. 6
12 Morgan et al. (2021) Longitudinal 176,094 Wales 11–16 years SES Multinomial logistic regression Children and adolescents with low SES had a lower likelihood of daily sugar-sweet beverage consumption (RRR: 0.68, 95% CI: 0.66–0.70) and lower consumption of energy drinks (RRR: 0.67, 95% CI: 0.63–0.70) compared to those with high SES. Low SES neighborhoods may have limited access to stores that offer soft drink beverage options. Methodological constraints affect the findings of this study. 8
13 Nardone et al. (2020) Cross-sectional 58,976 Italy 11–15 years Parental income and parental education Logistic regression Children and adolescents with higher parental education were less likely to skip breakfast (OR: 0.75, 95% CI: 0.67–0.84), as were those with higher parental income (OR: 0.84, 95% CI: 0.76–0.92). Health consciousness can provide guidance on healthy eating habits, including breakfast. The poor study setting did not provide a valid conclusion. 6
14 Simetin et al. (2011) Cross-sectional 3,296 Croatia 11–15 years SES Binary logistic regression Children from high parental SES backgrounds had a higher likelihood of consuming regular breakfast (OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1–1.8) compared to those from low parental SES. Higher resources and knowledge emphasis on regular breakfast consumption. However, self-reporting bias and lack of causation limit conclusions on the high SES and consumption of diet. 6
15 Al Sabbah et al. (2007) Cross-sectional 8,885 Palestine 12–18 years Maternal education Logistic regression Adolescents with higher maternal education were more likely to consume sweets (OR: 1.15, 95% CI: 1.01–1.30) and soft drinks (OR: 1.28, 95% CI: 1.11–1.48) compared to those with low maternal education. Consumption of sweets and soft drinks can be influenced by cultural and social norms. Nevertheless, self-reported measurements might result in either an overestimation or underestimation of the findings. 6
16 Lazzeri et al. (2014) Cross-sectional 3,291 Italy 11–15 years Parental income Logistic regression Children and adolescents with high parental income were more likely to have irregular breakfast consumption (OR children: 1.12, 95% CI: 0.60–2.09; OR adolescents: 1.80, 95% CI: 0.98–3.31) compared to those with low parental income. Parents from high SES backgrounds may have demanding jobs or work long hours, which can affect the time allocated for breakfast preparation and consumption. However, the finding may be influenced by measurement errors. 6
17 Zaborskis et al. (2012) Cross-sectional 33,230 Lithuania 11–15 years Parental income Binary logistic regression Children and adolescents with high parental income were more likely to regularly consume sweets and chocolates, regularly drink soft drinks, and regularly consume biscuits and pastries (OR for sweets and chocolates: 1.48, 95% CI: 1.31–1.68; OR for soft drinks: 1.39, 95% CI: 1.21–1.60; OR for biscuits and pastries: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.17–1.63) compared to those with low parental income Accessibility and parental time constraints can lead to an increase in the consumption of fast food including chocolates, soft drinks, biscuits, and pastries. However, it is hard to make causality inferences due to the study design. 8
18 Zaborskis et al. (2021) Cross-national 192,755 42 countries including 40 countries from Europe, Canada, and Israel 11–15 years SES Logistic regression model and structural equation model Children and adolescents from low parental SES were more likely to consume more soft drinks (OR: 1.25; 95% CI: 1.20, 1.30) than those from higher parental SES. Soft drinks are often more affordable than healthier beverage options. However, the findings are concerned with potential bias. 7