Table 5.

Studies examining the association between parental SES and diet habits.

SN	Authors	Methodology description						Findings	Key strengths and limitations	Quality score
		Study design	Sample size (n)	Continent/country	Age range	SES measure	Method of analysis
1	Mikki et al. (2010)	Cross-sectional survey	2,952	Palestine	13–15 years	Parental education	The multivariate linear regression model	Adolescents with higher parental education were more likely to have a healthier dietary pattern compared to those with lower parental education	Awareness of health risks associated with poor dietary choices. This awareness can motivate them to emphasize healthy eating in their households. One potential constraint of this study is the utilization of self-reported responses, which has the potential to impact both the validity and reliability of the findings.	8
2	Yannakoulia et al. (2016)	Cross-sectional, National representative	11,717	Greece	3–18 years	SES	Classification–regression tree analysis (CART) model	Children and adolescents from low SES backgrounds had lower consumption of dairy products and daily breakfast than those from high SES backgrounds. Similarly, low SES adolescents had lower consumption of dairy products and daily breakfast than their high SES peers.	Lower-educated parents may have less knowledge about the nutritional benefits. So, they may not prioritize healthy foods in their children’s diets. However, self-reported adolescent behavioral patterns can make it difficult to estimate the inclusive results.	8
3	Richter et al. (2009a)	Cross-national survey	97,721	Europe (n = 30), Asia (n = 1), North America (n = 2)	13–15 years	SES	The multilevel logistic regression model	Adolescents with low SES had a reduced likelihood of consuming breakfast (OR boys: 0.75, 95% CI: 0.66–0.86; OR girls: 0.83, 95% CI: 0.75–0.93) compared to those with high SES	Economic constraints limit their access to a variety of nutritious breakfast options. However, the findings were influenced by the way physical activity is measured or reported leading to unusual results.	8
4	Poulain et al. (2019)	Longitudinal	1,223	German	3–18 years	SES	Mixed-effect models	Children (β: 0.05, 95% CI −0.03 to 0.13) and adolescents (β: 0.10, 95% CI: 0.01–0.18) in higher-SES were more likely to consume nutritious food compared to those in lower-SES families	Education and nutrition knowledge emphasize the importance of fruits, vegetables, and other healthy food items. However, this study may have limited representativeness across socioeconomic classes, potentially limiting its broader applicability.	9
5	Vereecke et al. (2005)	Cross-national	114,558	28 European countries	11–15 years	SES	Multiple regression model	Children and adolescents with high SES were more likely to consume a higher number of soft drinks (OR: 1.257, 95% CI: 1.211–1.305) compared to their peers.	Higher disposable may have greater purchasing power for non-essential items. Due to the poor classification of data measurement draws a poor conclusion.	6
6	Sinai et al. (2021)	Cross-sectional	3,902	Isreal	11–18 years	SES	Multiple regression model	Adolescents with higher SES had a higher consumption of plant-based foods, cereals, milk, and spreads (OR Plant-based food: 1.50, 95% CI: 1.23–1.82, OR Cereals and milk: 1.10, 95% CI: 0.91–1.33) compared to those with lower SES.	Access to resources and health consciousness make easier for people from high SES backgrounds to incorporate these foods into their diets. However, self-reported information could influence the results.	8
7	Yang (2021)	Longitudinal	1,040	South Korea	10–11 years	SES	Multiple linear regression model	Children from higher parental SES levels were more likely to consume healthy food (β = 0.07, p = 0.018) compared to their peers.	Parents prioritize healthy eating behaviors which are more likely to adopt similar habits to their children. However, this study limits the causal inferences	10
8	Esquius et al. (2021)	Cross-sectional	7,319	Spain	12–18 years	SES	Multilevel Poisson regression models	Adolescents with low SES were at a higher risk of skipping breakfast (PR boys: 1.28, 95% CI: 1.04–1.58; PR girls: 1.30, 95% CI: 1.12–1.52) compared to their peers	Time and routine constraints can make it difficult to prioritize breakfast. Self-reported adolescent diet patterns can be difficult to assess because of social desirability bias.	8
9	Park and Hwang (2017)	Cross-sectional	72,435	South-Korea	13–18 years	SES	Multivariate logistic regression	The odds of skipping breakfast were significantly higher (OR: 1.433, 95% CI: 1.347–1.523) for adolescents with low parental SES compared to those with high parental SES.	Food insecurity can result in irregular meal patterns, including breakfast-skipping. Nevertheless, there are certain methodological limitations in the study	8
10	Voráčová et al. (2016)	Cross-sectional	10,831	Czech Republic	11–15 years	SES	Logistic regression	Children and adolescents from higher parental SES backgrounds had lower odds of consuming sweets (OR: 0.79, 95% CI: 0.69–0.90) and soft drinks (OR: 0.41, 95% CI: 0.31–0.53) compared to their peers.	Parental monitoring can lead to healthier food choices for their children. However, eating habits as reported may have been influenced by social desirability bias.	8
11	Johansen et al. (2006)	Cross-sectional	3,458	Denmark	14–16 years	Maternal occupation	GEE logistic regression	Adolescents with unemployed mothers had significantly higher odds of irregular breakfast consumption (OR: 1.56, 95% CI: 1.06–2.29) compared to their peers.	Unemployment can lead to food insecurity in the household. In such cases, adolescents may skip meals, including breakfast. However, the study did not provide a clear pattern of how SES contributes to eating a healthy diet.	6
12	Morgan et al. (2021)	Longitudinal	176,094	Wales	11–16 years	SES	Multinomial logistic regression	Children and adolescents with low SES had a lower likelihood of daily sugar-sweet beverage consumption (RRR: 0.68, 95% CI: 0.66–0.70) and lower consumption of energy drinks (RRR: 0.67, 95% CI: 0.63–0.70) compared to those with high SES.	Low SES neighborhoods may have limited access to stores that offer soft drink beverage options. Methodological constraints affect the findings of this study.	8
13	Nardone et al. (2020)	Cross-sectional	58,976	Italy	11–15 years	Parental income and parental education	Logistic regression	Children and adolescents with higher parental education were less likely to skip breakfast (OR: 0.75, 95% CI: 0.67–0.84), as were those with higher parental income (OR: 0.84, 95% CI: 0.76–0.92).	Health consciousness can provide guidance on healthy eating habits, including breakfast. The poor study setting did not provide a valid conclusion.	6
14	Simetin et al. (2011)	Cross-sectional	3,296	Croatia	11–15 years	SES	Binary logistic regression	Children from high parental SES backgrounds had a higher likelihood of consuming regular breakfast (OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1–1.8) compared to those from low parental SES.	Higher resources and knowledge emphasis on regular breakfast consumption. However, self-reporting bias and lack of causation limit conclusions on the high SES and consumption of diet.	6
15	Al Sabbah et al. (2007)	Cross-sectional	8,885	Palestine	12–18 years	Maternal education	Logistic regression	Adolescents with higher maternal education were more likely to consume sweets (OR: 1.15, 95% CI: 1.01–1.30) and soft drinks (OR: 1.28, 95% CI: 1.11–1.48) compared to those with low maternal education.	Consumption of sweets and soft drinks can be influenced by cultural and social norms. Nevertheless, self-reported measurements might result in either an overestimation or underestimation of the findings.	6
16	Lazzeri et al. (2014)	Cross-sectional	3,291	Italy	11–15 years	Parental income	Logistic regression	Children and adolescents with high parental income were more likely to have irregular breakfast consumption (OR children: 1.12, 95% CI: 0.60–2.09; OR adolescents: 1.80, 95% CI: 0.98–3.31) compared to those with low parental income.	Parents from high SES backgrounds may have demanding jobs or work long hours, which can affect the time allocated for breakfast preparation and consumption. However, the finding may be influenced by measurement errors.	6
17	Zaborskis et al. (2012)	Cross-sectional	33,230	Lithuania	11–15 years	Parental income	Binary logistic regression	Children and adolescents with high parental income were more likely to regularly consume sweets and chocolates, regularly drink soft drinks, and regularly consume biscuits and pastries (OR for sweets and chocolates: 1.48, 95% CI: 1.31–1.68; OR for soft drinks: 1.39, 95% CI: 1.21–1.60; OR for biscuits and pastries: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.17–1.63) compared to those with low parental income	Accessibility and parental time constraints can lead to an increase in the consumption of fast food including chocolates, soft drinks, biscuits, and pastries. However, it is hard to make causality inferences due to the study design.	8
18	Zaborskis et al. (2021)	Cross-national	192,755	42 countries including 40 countries from Europe, Canada, and Israel	11–15 years	SES	Logistic regression model and structural equation model	Children and adolescents from low parental SES were more likely to consume more soft drinks (OR: 1.25; 95% CI: 1.20, 1.30) than those from higher parental SES.	Soft drinks are often more affordable than healthier beverage options. However, the findings are concerned with potential bias.	7