Table 1.
Metabolites | Human/animal/cell type species | Conclusions | Reference and year |
---|---|---|---|
SCFAs (acetate, butyrate, propionate) | DKD patients | The levels of serum and fecal SCFAs (especially in fecal) are lowered, and which are negatively correlated with renal function | Zhong et al. (2021) |
SCFAs (acetate, butyrate, propionate) | C57BL/6 mice, T2D Mouse model induced by HFD and STZ, glomerular mesangial cells | SCFAs, especially butyrate, improved T2D-induced kidney damages including reduction of proteinuria, serum creatinine, urea nitrogen, and cystatin C, inhibition of mesangial matrix accumulation and renal fibrosis via GPR43-mediated inhibition of oxidative stress and NF-κB signaling, | Huang et al. (2020) |
High-fiber diet, SCFAs (acetate, butyrate, propionate) | C57BL/6, Gpr43−/− and Gpr109A−/− mice; Mouse kidney tubular epithelial cells and podocytes | SCFAs can ameliorate renal damages, inhibit the expression of fibrosis-related genes (TGF-β and fibronectin), and decrease the inflammation in renal tubular cells and podocytes exposed to hyperglycemic by activating GPR43 or GPR109A receptors | Li et al. (2020) |
NaB | Juvenile Sprague Dawley rats | NaB treatment can improve the renal function and alleviate the pathological injury, fibrosis, apoptosis and DNA damage in the diabetic kidney | Khan et al. (2014) |
NaB | C57BL/6(Nrf2+/+) and Nrf2−/− mice | NaB treatment protect against DN by activating Nrf2 possibly via inhibition of HDAC activity | DDong et al. (2017) |
NaB | db/db mice, NRK-52E cells | Sodium butyrate plays an anti-apoptotic effect in the kidney of db/db mice and HG-induced NRK-52E cells by inhibiting expression of HDAC2 | Du et al. (2020) |
SCFAs (acetate, butyrate, propionate) | C57BL/6 mice, Mouse glomerular mesangial cells | SCFAs, especially acetate and butyrate, significantly inhibit proliferation of GMCs,production of ROS and MDA, expression of ICAM-1 and proinflammatory cytokine(MCP-1and IL-1β) induced by high glucose and LPS | Huang et al. (2017a, b) |
TMAO | Sprague Dawley rats | TMAO treatment not only aggravates the renal dysfunction and fibrosis, but also accelerates renal inflammation by activating NLRP3 inflammasome and releasing IL-1β and IL-18 | Fang et al.(2021a, b) |
Bile acids (FXR/TGR5 Dual Agonist) | DBA/2 J mice, C57BL/6 J mice, db/db mice | INT-767, as a semisynthetic bile acid derivative, can reduce proteinuria and relieve podocyte injury, mesangial expansion, and tubulointerstitial fibrosis via multiple pathways and targets | Wang et al. (2018) |
UDCA | db/db mice, podocyte | UDCA exerts renoprotective effects by reducing the occurrence of oxidative stress and exhibits renal protection in vivo and in vitro | Cao et al.(2016a, b) |
UDCA and 4-PBA | db/db mice, podocyte | UDCA Reduces renal pathological injury and apoptosis of podocytes by inhibiting activation of caspase-3 and caspase-12 and restoring autophagy in vivo and vitro | Cao et al. (2016a, b) |
TUDCA | db/db mice, eNOS−/− mice, Podocytes, Human proximal tubular epithelial cells | TUDCA ameliorates tubular damage by inducing expression of FXR-dependent genes (SOCS3 and DDAH1) in tubular cells,db/db and eNOS−/− mice | Marquardt et al. (2017) |
TUDCA | db/db mice | TUDCA reduces blood glucose, albuminuria and renal histopathology by inhibiting ER stress in the kidneys of diabetic db/db mice | Zhang et al. (2016) |
IS | C57BL/6 mice, FVB/N mice, human kidney autopsy podocyte | IS promotes glomerular and podocyte injury including altered cell morphology, decreased expression of podocyte differentiation markers, and a proinflammatory state by activating podocyte AhR | Ichii et al. (2014) |
IS | T2D patients | Level of serum IS is negatively correlated with renal function | Atoh et al. (2009) |
PS | C57BL6 mice,db/db mice, KKAy mice, diabetes patients | The level of plasma PS is not only significantly correlated with proteinuria/creatinine and estimated glomerular filtration rate in diabetic patients, but also can predict the deterioration of ACR in DKD patients in 2 years | Kikuchi et al. (2019) |
SCFA short-chain fatty acids; HFD high fat diet; STZ streptozocin; GPR43 G-protein-coupled receptor 43; NF-κB nuclear factor kappa B; GPR109A G-protein-coupled receptor 109A; TGF-β transforming growth factor-β; NaB sodium butyrate; HDAC histone deacetylase; NRF2 nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; HG high glucose; NRK-52E normal rat kidney tubular epithelial cells; GMCs glomerular mesangial cells; ROS reactive oxygen species; MDA malondialdehyde; ICAM-1 intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1; MCP-1 monocyte chemotactic protein-1; IL-1βinterleukin-1 β; LPS lipopolysaccharide; TMAO Trimethylamine N-oxide; NLRP3 nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-containing family, pyrin domain-containing-3 inflammasome; IL-18 interleukin-18; FXR farnesoid X receptor; TGR5 G-protein-coupled BA receptor 1; UDCA Ursodeoxycholic acid; 4-PBA 4-phenylbutyrate; TUDCA tauroursodeoxycholic acid; eNOS endothelial nitric oxide synthase; SOCS3 suppressor of cytokine signaling 3; DDAH1 dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase 1; IS Indoxyl sulfate; AhR aryl-hydrocarbon receptor; PS phenyl sulfate; ACR albumin to creatinine ratio