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. 2023 Oct 31;15:239. doi: 10.1007/s40820-023-01187-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Special carriers loaded 3D printing scaffolds. a The schematic representation of designing a lotus seedpod-inspired internal vascularized 3D printed bioceramic scaffold with internal vascularization and osteogenesis functionalities. b Fluorescent microscopic images of GelMA Microspheres. c The in vitro release profile. d Characterization of liposome particles via DLS. e The double calcein labeling and the quantitive results. f Immunofluorescence staining of the angiogenesis and osteogenesis related genes A-F are reproduced with permission [104].

Copyright 2021, Elsevier. g General illustration of engineered exosome enhanced therapies on osteogenesis and angiogenesis. h TEM images and protein markers of exosomes. The immunofluorescence image of modified scaffold and the exosomes. g–i are reproduced with permission [182]. Copyright 2021, Ivyspring International Publisher