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. 2023 Oct 31;15:239. doi: 10.1007/s40820-023-01187-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 7 — Structural mimicking 3D printing approaches. a Experimental design of a centrally vascularized tissue engineering bone graft with the unique core–shell composite structure. b SEM characterization and cellular adhesion of implanted cells to the scaffolds. c Evaluation of neovascularization of different types of scaffolds through enhanced micro-CT imaging in rabbit femoral bone defect model. a–c are reproduced with permission [210].

Copyright 2018, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. d Marrow retaining scaffold design and dimensions and positioning of vessels with perforated plastic retainer and scaffold assembly in plastic retainer. e Backscattered SEM axial sections from the top, middle, and bottom of scaffolds with high magnification regions. d, e are reproduced with permission [214]. Copyright 2019, Wiley