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. 2023 Oct 31;15:239. doi: 10.1007/s40820-023-01187-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 9 — Schematic illustration of the 4D printed vascularized scaffolds application in tissue engineering. a Scheme of the 4D biofabrication of self-folding hydrogel-based (cell-laden) tubes. b Self-folding hydrogel-based (cell-laden) tubes responsiveness: cartoons (upper panel) and representative photographs (lower panel). c Representative fluorescence microscopy images of the cell-laden tubes after 1 d (left column), 2 d (middle column), and 7 d (right column) of culture [227].

Copyright 2017, Wiley. d Alkaline phosphatase and thrombin 4D activity [225]. Copyright 2018, Wiley. e The sequential catalysis activities of 4D object leading to fibrin deposition and calcification [225] Copyright 2018, Wiley