Table 1.

The research progress and approaches of vascularized 3D-printed bone repair materials

Modification	Property	Therapy model	References
Functionalized 3D printed scaffolds
Tantalum scaffold/poly dopamine/magnesium	Sustained ion release enhanced vascularized bone formation	Rat femur condyles bone defect	[96]
PCL/HA scaffold/Sr2+/Fe3+	Synergetic release of Sr2 + /Fe3 + achieved bone regeneration with immunomodulation, angiogenesis, and osteogenesis	Rat cranial defect	[155]
TCP scaffold/SiO2 and ZnO dopants	Addition of SiO2 and ZnO to the scaffolds facilitated cellular attachment and proliferation	In vitro cell experiments	[156]
PCL scaffold/surface aminolysis /DFO	Controlled release of DFO achieved the rapid 3D vascularization and bone regeneration	Rat femur defect	[103]
MBG/PHBHHx scaffold/DMOG	Sustained DMOG release enhances the angiogenesis and osteogenesis	Rat bone defect	[157]
β-TCP scaffold/RGD-phage	Stable REG production induced the regeneration of vascularized bone	Rat radius defect	[160]
Mesoporous calcium silicate scaffold/SVVYGLR	The stable and sustained release of SVVYGLR promoted more tubular vessel formation and homogeneous new bone regeneration	Rabbit radial defect	[161]
Hydroxyapatite/calcium sulfate scaffold/VEGF	The stable release of VEGF improved bone regeneration and angiogenesis	Rabbit femur defect	[163]
PLA scaffold/gelatin and Polylysine/BMP-2/VEGF	Sequential release of BMP-2/VEGF in spatiotemporal successfully induced angiogenesis and osteogenesis	In vitro cell experiments	[164]
PCL scaffold/BMP-2/VEGF	Spatially and temporally delivered BMP-2 and VEGF sequentially promoted angiogenesis and bone regeneration	Subcutaneous model of mice	[165]
Special carrier-loaded 3D printed scaffolds
Ti6Al4V scaffold/poloxamer 407 hydrogel/simvastatin	Sustained release of simvastatin promotes osteogenesis and angiogenesis	Rabbit tibial defect	[174]
Gel/alginate/β-TCP scaffold PLGA microspheres/VEGF	Sustained release of VEGF promotes osteogenesis and angiogenesis	In vitro cell experiments	[178]
β-TCP scaffold/Gel microspheres /Liposome DFO	Controlled release of DFO promotes osteogenesis and angiogenesis	Rat femoral defect	[104]
PCL scaffold/exosomes/VEGF	Delivery and protection of VEGF promoted osteogenesis and angiogenesis	Rat radial defect	[182]
Cell-modified 3D printed scaffolds
PLA scaffold/EPCs/hBMSCs	Improved cell survival, oxygen diffusion, and nutrients. Promoted Osteogenesis and angiogenesis	In vitro cell experiments	[187]
PCL/HA scaffold/hydrogel ADMSC/HUVECs	Accelerated the establishment of vascular network	Subcutaneous model of mice	[189]
PCL/HA scaffold/SVFCs hydrogel	Short-term hypoxia promoted vascularization	Subcutaneous model of mice	[191]
PDACS/PCL/WJMSCs/HUVECs hydrogel scaffold	Promoted the formation of the vascular network and enhanced osteogenesis	In vitro cell experiments	[192]
Hyaluronic acid (HAMA)/alginate/HUVECs microvessels	Injection and suturing, be introduced into large bone repair implants for pre-vascularization and osteogenesis promotion	Subcutaneously in a murine model	[190]
PCL/TCP/hFASCs hydrogel scaffold	Promoted osteogenesis and vasculogenesis	Rat cranial defect	[193]
HUVECs/ASCs hydrogel scaffold	Promoted osteogenesis and vasculogenesis	Mice muscle implantation	[194]
BMP-hBMSCs/GelMA scaffold	Promoted osteogenesis and vasculogenesis	Mice muscle implantation	[195]
Alginate/HA/plasmid MSCs/PCL scaffold	BMP-transfected cells promoted osteogenesis and angiogenesis	Subcutaneous model of mice	[196]
MSCs/EVs/PLA scaffold	Increased the expression of osteogenic and angiogenic markers	Rat cranial defect	[197]
Bionic 3D printed scaffolds
β-TCP scaffold /MSCs/ECFCs Hydrogel	Realized central vascularization and Osteogenesis	Rabbit femoral defect	[210]
OCP/GelMA hydrogel/HUVECs scaffold	Simulated bone structure; accelerated osteogenesis and angiogenesis	In vitro cell experiments	[211]
CDHA/axial vascular pedicle scaffold	Simulated bone structure achieved osteogenesis and angiogenesis	Sheep large bone defect	[212]
PLGA/β-TCP/CMs AV bundle scaffold	Combined of an AV bundle and rhBMP-2	Rabbit intramuscular pocket	[213]
Bioceramics/autologous total bone marrow/femoral vein scaffold	Illustrated the capacity of an intrinsic vascularization by a single vein to support ectopic bone formation	Subcutaneous model of mouse, sheep, rat, rabbit	[214]
AKT hollow-channel scaffold	Multi-channel structure achieved osteogenesis and angiogenesis	Rabbit cranial defect; Rat muscle implantation	[215]
BRT-H scaffold	Hollow-pipe structure with bioactive ions accelerated osteogenesis and vascularization	Rabbit radius segmental defect	[216]
AKT/bio-ceramic/bioactive glass scaffold	Haversian bone–mimicking scaffold promoted osteogenesis and angiogenesis	Rabbit femoral defect	[217]