Fig 1. 3D models of the five virtual classroom environments and the laboratory space.

(A) The classroom for conducting the experiment at Duke Kunshan University. (B) Control: Non-biophilic classroom. (C) Intervention 1: Indoor green–green plants and natural materials. (D) Intervention 2: Outdoor green–natural view and daylight into indoor space through windows. (E) Intervention 3: Turbid outdoor green–blocked outdoor view with visual turbidity (same classroom view as intervention 2). (F) Intervention 4: Combination–biophilic elements from indoor green and outdoor green.