Table 3.
Bivariate Associations and Multilevel Regression Model Results, High- and Low-Density Urban Areas
| Variables | Hlgh-densIty urban (n=15,120) |
Low-density urban (n=23,480) |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bivariatea |
Multivariable |
Bivariate |
Multivariable |
|||||
| Rs | p-Value | β | (95% CI) | Rs | p-Value | β | (95% CI) | |
|
| ||||||||
| Limited healthy food (z)b | −0.17 | <0.01 | −0.06 | (−0.11, −0.01) | 0.06 | <0.01 | −0.01 | (−0.05, 0.02) |
| Liquor store/1,000 (z) | −0.04 | <0.01 | −0.01 | (−0.06, 0.04) | −0.07 | <0.01 | −0.02 | (−0.05, 0.02) |
| Tobacco store/1,000 (z) | 0.00 | 0.77 | 0.02 | (−0.03, 0.06) | −0.06 | <0.01 | −0.01 | (−0.04, 0.02) |
| Convenience store/1,000 (z) | −0.17 | <0.01 | −0.10 | (−0.14, −0.05) | −0.28 | <0.01 | −0.14 | (−0.17, −0.1) |
| Gas station/1,000 (z) | −0.01 | 0.14 | 0.00 | (−0.04, 0.04) | −0.02 | <0.01 | −0.04 | (−0.07, −0.01) |
| Fast-food/1,000 (z) | −0.04 | <0.01 | −0.02 | (−0.08, 0.03) | −0.12 | <0.01 | 0.00 | (−0.04, 0.04) |
| Bar/1,000 (z) | −0.10 | <0.01 | −0.12 | (−0.17, −0.07) | −0.20 | <0.01 | −0.11 | (−0.15, −0.08) |
| Intersection density (z) | −0.04 | <0.01 | 0.02 | (−0.02, 0.07) | −0.17 | <0.01 | −0.16 | (−0.19, −0.12) |
| Transit stop coverage (z) | 0.12 | <0.01 | 0.06 | (0, 0.12) | 0.07 | <0.01 | 0.02 | (−0.02, 0.05) |
| Count of open parks (z) | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.08 | (0.04, 0.13) | 0.12 | <0.01 | 0.05 | (0.02, 0.09) |
| Percentage green space (z) | −0.01 | 0.32 | 0.22 | (0.16, 0.28) | 0.17 | <0.01 | 0.10 | (0.05, 0.16) |
| CO (z) | 0.19 | <0.01 | 0.09 | (0, 0.19) | −0.01 | 0.07 | −0.02 | (−0.07, 0.03) |
| NO2 (z) | 0.19 | <0.01 | 0.37 | (0.24, 0.5) | −0.03 | <0.01 | 0.07 | (0, 0.15) |
| O3 (z) | −0.05 | <0.01 | −0.03 | (−0.16, 0.1) | 0.00 | 0.61 | −0.26 | (−0.37, −0.14) |
| PM10 (z) | 0.01 | 0.09 | −0.13 | (−0.24, −0.02) | −0.15 | <0.01 | 0.00 | (−0.08, 0.08) |
| PM2.5 (z) | −0.19 | <0.01 | −0.05 | (−0.19, 0.08) | −0.28 | <0.01 | −0.09 | (−0.2, 0.02) |
| SO2 (z) | −0.25 | <0.01 | −0.32 | (−0.43, −0.22) | −0.27 | <0.01 | −0.25 | (−0.32, −0.19) |
| Renter (z) | −0.20 | <0.01 | −0.43 | (−0.51, −0.34) | −0.46 | <0.01 | −0.37 | (−0.43, −0.31) |
| House before 1979 (z) | −0.08 | <0.01 | −0.08 | (−0.14, −0.03) | −0.24 | <0.01 | −0.33 | (−0.37, −0.28) |
| Crowding (z) | 0.08 | <0.01 | −0.16 | (−0.24, −0.08) | −0.20 | <0.01 | 0.00 | (−0.05, 0.04) |
| Excessive housing cost (z) | −0.16 | <0.01 | −0.02 | (−0.09, 0.05) | −0.31 | <0.01 | −0.12 | (−0.17, −0.07) |
| Null-model ICC | 0.411 | 0.355 | ||||||
| Conditional ICC | 0.070 | 0.076 | ||||||
| Marginal R2 | 0.571 | 0.596 | ||||||
| Conditional R2 | 0.641 | 0.672 | ||||||
Note: Boldface indicates statistical significance (p<0.05) in multivariable models.
Rs were calculated from Pearson correlation test.
CO, carbon monoxide; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; NO2, nitrogen dioxide; O3, ozone; PM10, particulate matter smaller than 10 μm; PM2.5, particulate matter smaller than 2.5 μm; SO2, sulfur dioxide.
Four hierarchical geographic boundaries, county, state, census division, and region were included as random effects. Multivariable models adjusted for median household income; population density; proportions of non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and residents with a 4-year college degree or higher; as well as age groups, unemployment rate, the proportion of foreign-born residents, and the proportions of households with children and without vehicles.
Half mile buffer for high-density urban areas, and 1 mile for low-density urban areas.