Table 4.
Bivariate Associations and Multilevel Regression Model Results, Suburban/Small Town and Rural Areas
| Variables | Suburban/small town (n=10,680) |
Rural (n=15,952) |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bivariatea |
Multivariable |
Bivariate |
Multivariable |
|||||
| Rs | p-Value | β | (95% CI) | Rs | p-Value | β | (95% CI) | |
|
| ||||||||
| Limited healthy food (z) | 0.25 | <0.01 | 0.05 | (−0.01, 0.11) | 0.11 | <0.01 | 0.26 | (0.22,0.31) |
| Liquor store/1,000 (z) | −0.06 | <0.01 | 0.00 | (−0.05, 0.05) | 0.04 | <0.01 | −0.04 | (−0.08, 0.01) |
| Tobacco store/1,000 (z) | −0.13 | <0.01 | −0.03 | (−0.08, 0.01) | −0.09 | <0.01 | −0.05 | (−0.09, −0.01) |
| Convenience store/1,000 (z) | −0.34 | <0.01 | −0.18 | (−0.23, −0.12) | −0.22 | <0.01 | −0.16 | (−0.21, −0.12) |
| Gas station/1,000 (z) | −0.02 | 0.02 | −0.01 | (−0.06, 0.03) | 0.01 | 0.20 | 0.02 | (−0.02, 0.06) |
| Fast-food/1,000 (z) | −0.20 | <0.01 | −0.09 | (−0.15, −0.04) | −0.12 | <0.01 | −0.07 | (−0.11, −0.02) |
| Bar/1,000 (z) | −0.20 | <0.01 | −0.11 | (−0.16, −0.05) | 0.11 | <0.01 | −0.01 | (−0.06, 0.03) |
| Intersection density (z) | −0.27 | <0.01 | −0.15 | (−0.21, −0.08) | −0.14 | <0.01 | −0.20 | (−0.25, −0.15) |
| Transit stop coverage (z) | 0.04 | <0.01 | 0.01 | (−0.04, 0.05) | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.00 | (−0.04, 0.04) |
| Count of Open parks (z) | 0.22 | <0.01 | 0.06 | (0.01, 0.12) | 0.07 | <0.01 | 0.00 | (−0.04, 0.05) |
| Percentage green space (z) | 0.17 | <0.01 | 0.00 | (−0.07, 0.07) | −0.03 | <0.01 | −0.17 | (−0.25, −0.09) |
| CO (z) | −0.01 | 0.20 | −0.08 | (−0.14, −0.01) | 0.11 | <0.01 | −0.04 | (−0.11, 0.03) |
| NO2 (z) | −0.05 | <0.01 | 0.02 | (−0.06, 0.11) | 0.01 | 0.43 | 0.06 | (−0.03, 0.15) |
| O3 (z) | −0.01 | 0.36 | −0.16 | (−0.27, −0.04) | −0.10 | <0.01 | −0.02 | (−0.12, 0.08) |
| PM10 (z) | −0.20 | <0.01 | 0.02 | (−0.08, 0.13) | −0.04 | <0.01 | 0.04 | (−0.07, 0.16) |
| PM2.5 (z) | −0.34 | <0.01 | −0.03 | (−0.16, 0.1) | −0.34 | <0.01 | −0.35 | (−0.48, −0.22) |
| SO2 (z) | −0.23 | <0.01 | −0.23 | (−0.32, −0.14) | −0.17 | <0.01 | −0.16 | (−0.24, −0.08) |
| Renter (z) | −0.48 | <0.01 | −0.36 | (−0.46, −0.27) | −0.31 | <0.01 | −0.33 | (−0.4, −0.26) |
| House before 1979 (z) | −0.33 | <0.01 | −0.40 | (−0.48, −0.32) | 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.11 | (−0.18, −0.05) |
| Crowding (z) | −0.18 | <0.01 | −0.03 | (−0.1, 0.04) | −0.09 | <0.01 | 0.02 | (−0.04, 0.08) |
| Excessive housing cost (z) | −0.18 | <0.01 | −0.16 | (−0.22, −0.09) | −0.05 | <0.01 | −0.14 | (−0.2, −0.09) |
| Null-model ICC | 0.466 | 0.449 | ||||||
| Conditional ICC | 0.113 | 0.194 | ||||||
| Marginal R2 | 0.522 | 0.297 | ||||||
| Conditional R2 | 0.635 | 0.492 | ||||||
Note: Bold indicates statistical significance (p<0.05) in multivariable models.
Rs were calculated from Pearson correlation test. Four hierarchical geographic boundaries, county, state, census division, and region were included as random effects. Multivariable models adjusted for median household income; population density; proportions of non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and residents with a 4-year college degree or higher; as well as age groups, unemployment rate, the proportion of foreign-born residents, and the proportions of households with children and without vehicles.
CO, carbon monoxide; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; NO2, nitrogen dioxide; O3, ozone; PM10, particulate matter smaller than 10 μm; PM2.5, particulate matter smaller than 2.5 μm; SO2, sulfur dioxide.
Half mile buffer for high-density urban areas, and 1 mile for low-density urban areas.