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. 2023 Nov 2;13:18904. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-42474-7

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Smokers’ (n = 308) daily smoking intensity is associated with relative abundance shifts of several genera and a decrease of aerobic taxa relative abundance. (A) Heatmap of genera significantly affected by daily smoking intensity. Genera were transformed to relative abundance and Z-score scaled to highlight relative differences in mean abundance in relation to the smoking intensity. Significant genera (Benjamini–Hochberg q-value < 0.05, FDR = 5%) were obtained modeling each genus in response to daily smoking intensity as multiples of 5 g per day as a semi-continuous variable, adjusting for age (continuous), sex and number of teeth in the DESeq2 negative binomial generalized linear model framework. (B, C, D) Relative abundance of aerobes, anaerobes and facultative anaerobes, respectively, in relation to the grams of tobacco smoked daily.