Table 4.

Biofabricated/3D printed constructs using decellularized ECM bio-inks/cell-derived matrices (CDMs).

Animal Source	Tissue/Organ	Gelation Mechanism/Crosslinking	Bio-ink Components	In vitro/in vivo assessment	Ref.
Porcine	Skin	Thermal gelation	Skin dECM Human dermal fibroblasts (hDF)	Supported viability and proliferation Increased epidermis formation-related genes.	[221]
Porcine	Heart	Vitamin B2-induced UVA crosslinking + thermal gelation	Heart dECM Cardiac progenitor cells (CPCs)	Supported high cell viability and proliferation with increased cardiomyogenic differentiation	[222]
Porcine	Skeletal muscles	Methacrylation	Skeletal muscle dECM C2C12 myoblasts	Supported differentiation and aligned myotube formation with increase gene expression and basement membrane component secretion	[223]
Porcine	Cartilage	Genipin	Cartilage dECM	PLGA gradient structure led to graded pore/fiber orientation structure and enhanced mechanical properties	[225]
Porcine	Tibialis anterior muscle and descending aorta	Thermal gelation	Skeletal muscle dECM + human muscle cells Vascular dECM + HUVECs	Supported high cell viability Improved vascularization, neural integration and functional recovery in VML rat model	[226]
Porcine	Hyaline Cartilage	Alginate and CaCl2	Cartilage dECM Human adipose-derived stem cells Alginate	Observed increased expression of chondrogenic markers. In vivo shape and structure maintenance with cartilaginous tissue formation after 12 weeks	[227]
Porcine	Heart	Thermal gelation	Heart dECM Primary cardiomyocytes	Enhanced cardiomyocyte maturation with aligned structural organization under dynamic culture and enhanced expression of cell adhesion molecules, integrin-based proteins, basement membrane proteins, and matrix remodeling metallopeptidases	[228]
Murine	Osteoblast/osteocyte-like cells (MLO-A5s)	–	MLO-A5 CDMs Human embryonic stem cell-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells	Improved attachment and significantly higher cell proliferation and osteogenic activity with higher angiogenic potential	[249]