FIGURE 4.

Primary therapeutic mechanisms of probiotics and postbiotics. (A) Production of antimicrobial substances. (B) Regulation of gut microbiome balance. (C) Increased adhesion to the intestinal mucosa and improvement of the epithelial barrier. (D) Stimulation of the immune system. (E) Affects the gut–brain axis, gut–kidney axis, and gut–liver axis. (F) Degradation or absorption the detrimental metabolites produced by metabolic diseases or harmful exogenous substances and metabolizes prebiotics to produce beneficial substances. (G) Competitive exclusion of pathogenic microorganisms.