Study ID	Country	Number randomiseda	Data collection period	Participants	Surgical details	Comparison (non‐surgical management)	Outcome
Agren 2013	Sweden	82	1994 to 2012	Mean age: 48.5 years Sex (M/F): 59/23	ORIF within 2 weeks. Involved extensile lateral approach, use of neutralisation plate, interfragmentary screws to achieve anatomic reduction	Rest, elevation, and non‐weight‐bearing	Follow‐up: 1 year, 8 to 12 years Primary outcome: composite pain and function score (VAS 0 to 100), quality of life (SF‐36)
Buckley 2002	Canada	424	1991 to 1997	Mean age: 40 years Sex (M/F): 381/43	ORIF. Involving extended lateral approach, use of plate, screw or wire fixation. Autografting left to surgeon discretion.	Ice, elevation, rest Physiotherapy started after 6 weeks for all participants.	Follow‐up: 2 to 4 weeks, 6, 12, 26, 52 weeks and 2 (minimum) to 8 years (maximum) Primary outcome: quality of life (SF‐36), disease‐specific scale (VAS)
Chrintz 1993	Denmark	68	1977 to 1979	Age: not reported Sex: not reported	Reduction and fixation with a Steinmann pin through calcaneus and talus followed by a PTB bandage for 12 weeks	PTB bandage for 12 weeks	Follow‐up: 6, 12 and a median of 80 weeks Pain, working capacity, activity in leisure time, working ability, tenderness on palpation or movement of the joints, duration of hospitalisation
Griffin 2014	UK	151	2007 to 2011	Mean age: 46.5 years Sex (M/F): 127/24	ORIF within 3 weeks, involving extensile lateral approach, use of neutralisation plate, interfragmentary screws	Early gentle mobilisation with the fitting of a removable splint	Follow‐up: 6, 12, 18, 24 months Primary outcome: Kerr‐Atkin's score
Hussain 2022	Pakistan	32	2021 to 2022	Mean age: surgical group 40 years; non‐surgical group 42 years Sex (M/F): 21/11	Surgery within 2 weeks of injury. Spinal, general, or epidural anaesthetic. Extensile lateral approach with single lateral plate. Stayed in hospital with limb in short leg non‐weight‐bearing splint. Weight‐bearing not authorised until 10 weeks postoperatively. Early subtalar RoM activities out of splint	Closed reduction was tried; short leg casts applied for 6 weeks and RoM exercises performed. In the case of swelling, temporary splint applied with a short leg POP back slab, suggested elevation, and anti‐inflammatory and analgesic medications	Follow‐up: 12 months Primary outcome: Modified Rowe’s score
Kamath 2021	India	55 participants (61 fractures)	Not reported	Mean age: surgical group 34.9 years; non‐surgical group 35 Sex (M/F): 55/0	Different surgical options: percutaneous reduction and fixation with Essex‐Lopresti manoeuvre/cannulated cancellous screws/K‐wires; or ORIF with plates/cannulated cancellous screws/K‐wires; splints with non‐weight‐bearing mobilisation for up to 4 weeks	Below‐knee cast and non‐weight‐bearing crutch walking for 6 weeks. Cast removed after 6 weeks.	Follow‐up: 12 months Primary outcome: Modified Rowe's score
Kulkarni 2015	India	29 (30 participants)	2012 to 2014	Mean age: 32.5 years Sex (M/F): 20/10	ORIF with calcaneal plates, and K‐wires 7 to 10 days after injury to allow local swelling to subside. The limb was then immobilised with plaster back slab for 4 to 5 weeks.	Below‐knee plaster cast once swelling had subsided, with partial weight‐bearing 7 to 8 weeks	Follow‐up: 12 months Primary outcome: Creighton‐Nebraska Score
Nouraei 2011	Iran	72	1998 to 2009	Mean age: 49 years Sex: not reported	ORIF with reconstruction plate and screw fixation Period of non‐weight‐bearing for 6 to 10 weeks after surgery. States that 2 different surgical procedures were used: 17 participants had Essex‐Lopresti technique (uses fluoroscopy x‐ray, closed reduction, internal fixation with pins and cast immobilisation); 14 participants had open reduction with lateral calcaneal approach and fixation with a reconstruction plate	Splinting, ice pack, elevation, closed reduction and cast immobilisation. Ambulation after 3 days with crutches. Cast removed after 6 weeks.	Follow‐up: clinical examination at 2 weeks, 1, 3, 6 months, and 1 year. Questionnaire follow‐up at 6 months Outcomes: pain, swelling, limitation of activity, shoe‐wearing difficulty, range of motion, osteoarthritis, patient satisfaction
Pandey 2018	Nepal	44	2014 to 2015	Mean age: 40.6 years Sex: not reported	Closed reduction and percutaneous screw fixation	Below‐knee casting. No information provided on rehabilitation.	Follow‐up: 2 weeks (operative group only), 8 weeks, 3 months and 6 months Outcomes: function, (AOFAS), pain (VAS), Böhler's angle, heel height/width, complications and bone union
Parmar 1993	UK	80 (but only reported 56)	1985 to 1992	Mean age: 48.6 years Sex (M/F): surgical group 21/4; non‐surgical group 27/4	Open lateral reduction and K‐wire fixation of the posterior subtalar joint. Postoperative immobilisation in a plaster cast for 6 weeks All participants remained non‐weight‐bearing for 6 to 8 weeks, then gradual weight‐bearing started.	Closed mobilisation of the hindfoot. Elevation and ice for 5 to 7 days, with movement encouraged as pain allowed, non‐weight‐bearing for 6 to 8 weeks All participants remained non‐weight‐bearing for 6 to 8 weeks, then gradual weight‐bearing started.	Follow‐up: 12 and 24 months Outcomes: pain, use of analgesia, site/pattern of pain, sural nerve symptoms, walking difficulty, employment, recreation level, shoe wear, heel width, recovery plateau reached, compensation pending, no or mild problems
Sharma 2011	India	30	2003 to 2006	Mean age (range): surgical group 28.1 (18 to 46) years; non‐surgical group 29.2 (25 to 60) years Sex (M/F): 21/9	ORIF after swelling had settled, involving extensile lateral approach, use of 3.5‐millimetre reconstruction plate, interfragmentary screws. Non‐weight‐bearing for 8 weeks	Limb elevated for 7 to 10 days with ice to control swelling. Non‐weight‐bearing for 8 weeks	Follow‐up: 12 weeks, 1 and 2 years Primary outcome: Kerr‐Atkin's score, function (AOFAS)
Thordarson 1996	USA	30	Not reported	Mean age (range): surgical group 35 (23 to 57) years; non‐surgical group 36 (24 to 47) years Sex (M/F): surgical 12/3; non‐surgical: 9/2	Open reduction through an L‐shaped lateral approach, rigid fixation with contoured reconstruction plate and screws (first half of study) or calcaneal Y plate (second half of study). Early RoM exercises from day 3 postoperatively. Non‐weight‐bearing for 10 weeks, then partial weight‐bearing, then full weight‐bearing at 12 weeks postoperatively	Ice, elevation, and bulky Jones bandage dressing until oedema had improved, then fitted with a removable posterior splint. Followed by early range of motion exercises. Non‐weight‐bearing for 8 weeks	Follow‐up: surgical group: mean 17 months, range 11 to 25 months; conservative group: mean 14 months, range 9 to 23 months Outcome: composite outcome index (AOFAS)