Table 8.
Association Between Baseline Factors and Incident VI
| Baseline Characteristics | Incident Presenting VI∗ (n = 514) |
Incident Best-Corrected VI∗ (n = 222) |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relative Risk† (95% CI) | P Value | Relative Risk† (95% CI) | P Value | |
| Age, per decade | 1.59 (1.42–1.77) | < 0.001 | 2.30 (1.91–2.78) | < 0.001 |
| Female gender | 0.86 (0.71–1.04) | 0.109 | 0.99 (0.74–1.32) | 0.937 |
| Ethnicity | ||||
| Chinese | Reference | - | Reference | - |
| Malay | 1.60 (1.28–2.01) | < 0.001 | 2.10 (1.44–3.06) | < 0.001 |
| Indian | 1.05 (0.83–1.32) | 0.698 | 1.01 (0.67–1.51) | 0.981 |
| Diabetes mellitus, yes | 1.15 (0.95–1.38) | 0.148 | 1.20 (0.90–1.60) | 0.222 |
| Hyperlipidemia, yes | 0.85 (0.71–1.01) | 0.065 | 0.72 (0.55–0.94) | 0.015 |
| Hypertension, yes | 1.06 (0.86–1.30) | 0.604 | 1.23 (0.84–1.79) | 0.294 |
| History of cardiovascular disease, yes | 1.38 (1.09–1.76) | 0.009 | 1.47 (1.04–2.10) | 0.031 |
| Chronic kidney disease, yes | 0.96 (0.76–1.21) | 0.712 | 1.56 (1.15–2.12) | 0.004 |
| Alcohol intake, yes | 0.85 (0.60–1.22) | 0.380 | 1.42 (0.82–2.47) | 0.210 |
| Current smoking | 1.31 (1.03–1.67) | 0.027 | 0.74 (0.46–1.19) | 0.216 |
| Body mass index, kg/m2 | 0.99 (0.97–1.01) | 0.563 | 0.95 (0.92–0.99) | 0.008 |
| Type of housing | ||||
| 5-room public flat and better | Reference | - | Reference | - |
| 3- to 4-room public flat | 1.47 (1.17–1.83) | 0.001 | 1.70 (1.12–2.57) | 0.012 |
| 1- to 2-room public flat | 2.01 (1.45–2.79) | < 0.001 | 3.63 (2.25–5.87) | < 0.001 |
| Monthly income, n (%) | ||||
| SGD ≥ $2000 | Reference | - | Reference | - |
| SGD < $2000 | 1.31 (1.00–1.72) | 0.050 | 1.58 (0.85–2.93) | 0.144 |
| Education level, n (%) | ||||
| Formal education‡ | Reference | - | Reference | - |
| No formal education | 1.63 (1.34–1.98) | < 0.001 | 1.78 (1.32–2.39) | < 0.001 |
CI = confidence interval; SGD = Singapore dollar; VI = visual impairment.
∗
Based on United States definition—visual impairment was defined as visual acuity < 20/40 (i.e., inclusive of low vision and blindness, based on better-seeing eye).
†
Adjusted for age, gender, ethnicity, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, history of cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, alcohol intake, current smoking, body mass index, type of housing, monthly income, and education level.
‡
Formal education was defined as having primary or higher education.