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. 2023 Nov 7;23:264. doi: 10.1186/s12935-023-03117-z

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — Microbiota play important role in gut environment and butyrate is an important metabolite produced by the microbiota. Microbiota induce TET expression and decrease the inflammation via TET.Butyrate inhibit HDAC, undifferentiated and stem cells, and increase the expression of AhR, GPR41, GPR109A, and mature colonocytes. PAMPs and DAMPs interact with TLRs and TLR 4 is one of the most considerable one. TLR 4 induce DUOX2 and NOX1 expression and it activates PI3K /AKT/NF-kB and PI3K/Wnt/ β-catenin signaling pathways which play important role in inflammatory response and metabolic reprogramming. PAMPs: Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs: Damage-associated molecular patterns, TLR: Toll-like receptor, AhR: Aryl hydrocarbon receptor, GPR41: G-protein-coupled receptor 41, GPR109A: G-protein coupled receptor 109A, TET: Ten-Eleven-Translocation, HDAC: Histone deacetylase, 5HMC: 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, DUOX2: Dual oxidase 2, NOX1: NADPH Oxidase 1, STAT3: Signal transducers and activators of transcription 3, SIRT1: Sirtuin 1