Table 2.

Types and functions of thrombolome in CKD

Origin	Types	Functions
Dietary tryptophan	Indoxyl sulfate	a. Inhibiting endothelial cell proliferation and damaging endothelial progenitor cells by inducing oxidative stress and inflammation41 b. Increasing TF/FVII levels by upregulating the AhR-STUB1-TF axis40,42 c. Activating platelets by inducing oxidative stress-mediated p38 MAPK activation43
	Indole-3-acetic acid	a. Inducing COX-2 expression by activating AhR/p38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways, which led to inflammation and endothelial injury44 b. Increasing TF/FVII levels by upregulating the AhR-STUB1-TF axis40,42 c. Activating platelets by inducing oxidative stress-mediated p38 MAPK activation43
	Kynurenine pathway–derived uremic toxins	a. Inducing inflammation and oxidative stress by activating AhR, which caused endothelial dysfunction and TF overexpression45 b. Causing coagulation factors disorder40,a
Phenylalanine/tyrosine	Phenylacetylglutamine	Inducing platelet hyperreactivity by activating α2A-, α2B-, β2-adrenergic receptors46
	P-cresol sulfate	Promoting MP release from endothelial cells47,a
	P-cresol glucuronide	Promoting MP release from endothelial cells47,a
Choline/phosphatidylcholine	Trimethylamine N-oxide	Promoting IP3-mediated Ca2+ release, leading to platelet hyperreactivity48

TF, tissue factor; FVII, coagulation factor VII; AhR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor; STUB1, stress-induced phosphoprotein 1 homologous and U-box containing protein 1; p38 MAPK, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase; NF-κB, nuclear factor-kappaB; MPs, microparticles; IP₃, 1,4,5-trisphosphate.

^aIndicates that the underlying mechanism has not been elucidated.