Table 1.
Characteristics of evaluated policies (n) across the spillover pathway1
| Characteristics | Total (n (%)) | Spillover pathway stage | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wildlife distribution and density | Pathogen prevalence | Pathogen survival and spread | Domesticate animal exposure | Within-domesticated animal barriers | Domesticated animal distribution and density | Pathogen prevalence | Pathogen survival and spread | Human exposure | Within-human barriers | Multiple stages | |||
| Target population | Wildlife | Domesticated animals | Humans | Multiple | |||||||||
| Total (n (%)) | 111 (100) | 5 (5) | 7 (6) | 1(1) | 4 (4) | 17 (15) | 1 (1) | 18 (16) | 10 (9) | 23 (21) | 5 (5) | 20 (18) | |
| Policy and governance level | |||||||||||||
| Local | 34 (31) | 1 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 15 | 0 | 4 | |
| National | 54 (49) | 2 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 0 | 14 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 11 | |
| Regional (e.g., European region) | 9 (8) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | |
| Global | 6 (7) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | |
| Policy and governance sector | |||||||||||||
| Animal health | 18 (16) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | |
| Environment | 5 (5) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Human health | 17 (15) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 4 | 1 | |
| Multi-sectoral | 26 (23) | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 6 | |
| Other or not stated | 45 (41) | 2 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 7 | 5 | 7 | 0 | 9 | |
| Implementing sector | |||||||||||||
| Retail | 19 (17) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 13 | 0 | 0 | |
| Trade | 7 (6) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0 | |
| Farming | 47 (42) | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 13 | 0 | 10 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 10 | |
| Human health | 8 (7) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 2 | |
| Animal health | 8 (7) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | |
| Conservation | 9 (8) | 3 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Other or multiple | 13 (12) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 6 | |
| Country income | |||||||||||||
| High | 52 (47) | 2 | 7 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 0 | 11 | 5 | 7 | 3 | 9 | |
| Upper middle | 31 (28) | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 14 | 0 | 1 | |
| Lower middle | 23 (21) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 7 | |
| Low | 2 (2) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
| Region | |||||||||||||
| East Asia and Pacific | 46 (41) | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 8 | 7 | 18 | 2 | 2 | |
| Europe and Central Asia | 21 (19) | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 4 | |
| Latin America & the Caribbean | 4 (4) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Middle East and North Africa | 4 (4) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
| North America | 17 (15) | 1 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | |
| South Asia | 2 (2) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 14 (13) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 6 | |
| Global | 1 (1) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Disease | |||||||||||||
| Avian influenza | 55 (50) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 6 | 9 | 18 | 12 | 12 | |
| Brucellosis | 12 (11) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 1 | |
| Hendra virus | 4 (4) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
| Rabies | 21 (19) | 2 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
| Other | 19 (17) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 5 | |
| Evaluation type | |||||||||||||
| Formative | 18 (16) | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | |
| Process | 42 (38) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 9 | 4 | 9 | 3 | 9 | |
| Outcome | 35 (32) | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 14 | 0 | 1 | |
| Economic | 13 (12) | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 5 | |
| Impact | 3 (3) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Policy instrument | |||||||||||||
| Communication/marketing | 6 (5) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | |
| Regulation | 4 (4) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | |
| Legislation | 65 (59) | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 14 | 1 | 16 | 8 | 16 | 0 | 0 | |
| Service provision | 16 (14) | 2 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | |
| Multiple instruments | 20 (18) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 15 | |
1Infection intensity and pathogen release in both wildlife and domesticated animals are excluded from the table as no relevant studies were identified; policy numbers do not add up to 111 for all characteristics (country income, region and governance level), reflecting modelling studies where this contextual information was not provided as framing for the study