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. 2023 Nov 9;21:427. doi: 10.1186/s12916-023-03136-7

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Study design and workflow. Abbreviations: NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; TL, telomere length; CI, confidence interval; PDFF, proton density fat fraction; TDI, Townsend deprivation index; APS, air pollution score; PRS, polygenic risk score; NO₂, nitrogen dioxide; NO_X, nitrogen oxides; PM₁₀, particulate matter with diameter ≤ 10 μm; PM_2.5, fine particulate matter with diameter ≤ 2.5 μm