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. 2023 Nov 9;14:7247. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-43093-6

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — a, b Cryo-TEM image and magnified image of SD-SEI. c Typical Li K-edge EEL spectrum of SD-SEI. d MALDI-ToF-MS of SD-SEI and c-SEI. e Relative content of selected components in the various SEI at different depths. The numbers closed to the ordinate represent the etching time (min). f–j Depth profiles of various secondary ion species obtained by sputtering in GBL-based electrolyte (f), PC-based electrolyte (g) and EC-based electrolyte (h), as well as ToF-SIMS secondary ion images of the cycled micron-sized Si electrodes of LiF₂⁻ (i) and O⁻ (j) in GBL-based electrolyte. Source data in c–h are provided as a Source data file.