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. 2023 Jul 17;86(4):2606–2617. doi: 10.1007/s00248-023-02259-x

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Sampling design on Mt. Asahi, Hokkaido, Japan. Blue dots represent locations where only one sample was collected, and red dots represent locations where 5 samples were taken from the same elevational bands. Digital elevation model data was downloaded from Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (www.gsi.go.jp). Elevation change was exaggerated three times relative to geographical distance