Table 1.

Gut microbiota and spinal musculoskeletal diseases.

Area	Spinal musculoskeletal diseases	Characteristics of gut microbiota	Evidence
Bone	Osteoporosis	Positive correlation: Actinobacillus, Blautia, Oscillospira, Bacteroides, Phascolarctobacterium	Ling et al. (2021)
	Osteoporosis	Higher proportion of Blautia and Parabacteroides and lower proportion of Ruminococcaceae UCG-002	Wang et al. (2017)
Joint	Facet joint osteoarthritis	No report
Disk	Intervertebral disk disease	More frequently or specifically: Pseudomonas veronii, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Streptococcus anginosus, Prevotella pallens, Avibacterium gallinarum, Enterobacter cowanii Many known human pathogens such as Prevotella tannerae, Halomonas nitritophilus, and Streptococcus alactolyticus	Rajasekaran et al. (2020)
Muscles	Sarcopenia	Reduced microbial diversity, with an increased level of Lactobacillus and decreased levels of Lachnospira, Fusicantenibacter, Roseburia, Eubacterium, and Lachnoclostridium	Kang et al. (2021)
Others	Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis	The Prevotella genus showed considerable increase in proportion.	Shen et al. (2019)
	Spondyloarthritis	A significantly increased abundance of Prevotella melaninogenica, Prevotella copri, and Prevotella sp. C561 and decreased representation of Bacteroides spp.	Wen et al. (2017)
	Ankylosing Spondylitis	Porphyromonas gingivalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella aerogenes, and Bacteroides vulgatus are associated with pathogenesis	Yang et al. (2016)