Table 3.
Comparison of demographics, health behaviors, medical history, and occupation by CKD category (no CKD, CKD with traditional risk factors, and suspected CKDu)
| Characteristics | No CKD (n = 1289) | CKD with traditional risk factors (n = 100) | Suspected CKDu group (n = 55) |
P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demographics | ||||
| Sex | < 0.001a * | |||
| Male | 513 (39.8%) | 48 (48.0%) | 37 (67.3%) | |
| Female | 776 (60.2%) | 52 (52.0%) | 18 (32.7%) | |
| Age, median (IQR) | 33 (23–43) | 48 (37–54) | 44 (34–55) | < 0.001b * |
| Socioeconomic level | 0.029a * | |||
| Extremely poor | 421 (33.0%) | 43 (43.0%) | 24 (43.6%) | |
| Poor | 328 (25.7%) | 29 (29.0%) | 13 (23.6%) | |
| Not poor | 527 (41.3%) | 28 (28.0%) | 16 (29.1%) | |
| Illiterate | 75 (5.8%) | 13 (13.0%) | 11 (20.0%) | < 0.001a * |
| Highest grade level completed, median (IQR)c | 9 (6–12) | 6 (3–11) | 6 (4–9) | < 0.001a * |
| Rural Zone | 447 (34.7%) | 37 (37.0%) | 24 (43.6%) | 0.352a |
| Well water sourced | 242 (18.8%) | 29 (29.0%) | 21 (38.2%) | < 0.001a * |
| Health behaviors | ||||
| Daily water intake (L), median (IQR) | 2 (1–3) | 2 (1–4) | 3 (2–4) | 0.003b * |
| Daily soda intake (L), median (IQR) | 0.25 (0–0.5) | 0 (0 – 0.5) | 0 (0–0.5) | 0.129b |
| Alcohol consumption in last day | 80 (6.2%) | 2 (2.0%) | 7 (12.7%) | 0.078b |
| History of smoking | 285 (22.1%) | 27 (27.0%) | 19 (34.5%) | 0.061a |
| Median years smoking | 8 (3–19) | 22 (13–35) | 24 (16–35) | < 0.001b * |
| History of drug consumption | 121 (9.4%) | 12 (12.0%) | 6 (10.9%) | 0.562a |
| Exercise ≥ 2 times weekly | 256 (19.9%) | 14 (14.0%) | 7 (12.7%) | 0.192a |
| Eat fruits, vegetables, or salads ≥ 2 times weekly | 769 (59.9%) | 60 (60.0%) | 23 (41.8%) | 0.030a * |
| Medical history | ||||
| NSAID use | 346 (26.8%) | 37 (37.0%) | 16 (29.1%) | 0.083a |
| Diuretic use | 49 (3.8%) | 13 (13.0%) | 2 (3.6%) | < 0.001a * |
| Hypertension | 142 (11.0%) | 53 (53.0%) | 0 | < 0.001a * |
| Diabetes | 52 (4.0%) | 22 (22.0%) | 0 | < 0.001a * |
| Kidney stones | 67 (5.2%) | 18 (18.0%) | 0 | < 0.001a * |
| Arthritis | 106 (8.2%) | 27 (27.0%) | 8 (14.5%) | < 0.001a * |
| Malaria | 128 (9.9%) | 15 (15.0%) | 7 (12.7%) | 0.196a |
| Urinary tract infection | 631 (49.0%) | 65 (65.0%) | 28 (50.1%) | 0.008a * |
| Family history of CKD | 312 (24.2%) | 42 (42.0%) | 16 (29.1%) | 0.003a * |
| Occupation | ||||
| Current agricultural occupatione | 86 (6.7%) | 11 (11.0%) | 16 (29.1%) | < 0.001a * |
| History of working in agriculture | 228 (17.7%) | 27 (27.0%) | 25 (45.5%) | < 0.001a * |
| Males | 152 (66.7%) | 24 (88.9%) | 22 (88.0%) | < 0.001a * |
| Females | 76 (33.3%) | 3 (11.1%) | 3 (12.5%) | 0.411a |
| Years worked, median(IQR) | 10 (5–20) | 13 (9–30) | 20 (8–32) | 0.042b * |
| History of fainting at work | 136 (10.6%) | 17 (17.0%) | 6 (10.9%) | 0.139a |
| History of heat exhaustion | 445 (34.5%) | 42 (42.0%) | 15 (27.2%) | 0.163a |
Abbreviations: CKD Chronic kidney disease, CKDu Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology, IQR Interquartile range, L Liters, NSAID Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
All percentages calculated from non-missing data. Less than 5% of each group is missing data unless otherwise indicated
ap-value calculated with Fisher’s Exact Test
bp-value calculated with Kruskal Wallis test
c92 participants missing grade level
dThe remainder of participants obtained water from a public water system with interior plumbing with the exception of 4 participants in the No CKD group who had a different water source that did not fit either of these categories (i.e. river, purchasing drinking water, ect)
eOf those with a current occupation in agriculture, all were male except 4 females in the no CKD group
* significant finding at p-value < 0.05