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. 2023 Jul 26;45(6):3187–3209. doi: 10.1007/s11357-023-00878-3

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Sex effects on DNA methylation in primates. A) The upset plot of the sex-mediated differential methylated CpGs in 13 tissues from 30 primate species (human, baboon, vervet monkey, macaque, and 26 strepsirrhine primate species which where were analyzed together and denoted as lemur) at different age ranges. Red (blue) color codes genes/CpGs with significantly increased (decreased) methylation levels in females compared to males. The analysis included 30 multivariate regression models (stratified by species, tissues, and age categories), including chronological age as the covariate. The y-axis reports the number of CpGs that are significant at a 5% FDR rate. Neonates in vervet monkeys and strepsirrhine primates were aged < 1 year. 780 CpGs adjacent to 248 genes related to sex in > 19 of these models. B) The overlap of conserved sex-dependent CpGs and DNAm aging in the baboons. Manhattan plots of the sex differences in specific baboon tissues can be found in Supplementary Fig. S10. The box plot of sex differences in these CpGs are reported in Supplementary Fig. S11