Table 1.
A general overview of the organoid technology in disease modeling for different organs.
| Organ | Organoid | Model System | Cell Source | Media and Supplements | Salient Features | Species | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brain | Cerebral organoid | Microcephaly | hPSCs/mouse ES cells | D0; human ES media, bFGF, and ROCK inhibitor. D6; DMEM/F12, N2, Glutamax. MEM-NEAA and heparin. D11; DMEM/F12 and Neurobasal containing N2, B27 without vitamin A, 2-mercaptoethanol, insulin, Glutamax and MEM-NEAA. D15; DMEM/F12 and Neurobasal containing N2, B27 with vitamin A, 2-mercaptoethanol, insulin, Glutamax and MEM-NEAA | Cerebral organoids that recapitulate cortical development | Human/Mouse | [32] |
| Lungs | Organoids consisting of epithelia and alveoli-like structures | Fetal lung | hPSCs | D0; RPMI 1640, Activin A, and dFBS. D4; anterior foregut, Advanced DMEM/F12, N-2 and B27, Hepes, L-Glutamine, Penicillin–streptomycin, Noggin, SB431542 and CHIR99021 | Development of fetal-like lung organoids with proximal airway structures | Human | [41] |
| Liver | Functional liver bud | Liver failure model | iPSCs, MSCs, HUVECs | D0; RPMI 1640, B27 and Activin A. D6; RPMI1640, B27, human bFGF, human BMP4 | iPSCs-derived liver bud transplantation in liver failure model | Human | [42] |
| Stomach | Gastric organoids | Pyloric epithelial organoids | ASCs | Gastric culture medium; Advanced DMEM/F12, B27, N2, nAcetylcysteine, and Gastrin containing EGF, R-spondin1, Noggin, FGF10 and Wnt3A. Enteroendocrine lineage; Exendin 4 | Lgr5+ stem cells at the base of pyloric glands drive epithelial regeneration | Mouse | [29] |
| Kidney | Kidney organoids | Fetal kidney organoid | iPSCs | D0; APEL basal medium, CHIR99021 and Antibiotic–Antimycotic. D5; APEL basal medium, FGF9 and heparin. D7; APEL and CHIR99021 (1h), APEL, FGF9 and heparin. D13; APEL basal medium | Generation of multicellular fetal-like kidney organoids using small molecules | Human | [43] |
| Pancreas | Pancreatic organoids consisting of ductal and acinar progeny | Cystic fibrosis model | iPSCs | D0; BE1 (MCDB13, glucose, sodium bicarbonate, fatty acid free, BSA, L-glutamine) supplemented with CHIR99021 and Activin A. D1; BE1 with Activin A. D4; BE1 with KFG. D6; BE3 (MCDB131 with 0.44 g/L glucose, 1.754 g/L sodium bicarbonate, FAF-BSA, L-glutamine, L-ascorbic acid, ITS-X) with SANT-1, retinoic acid, LDN-193189 and PD0325901. D10; BE3 with FGF10, Indolactam V, SB431542 and glucose. D12; BE3 with Rock inhibitor. D14; BE3, FGF2 and Rock inhibitor. D18; BE3 with FGF2 and nicotinamide | Patient-derived pancreatic organoids as in vitro cystic fibrosis model | Human | [44] |
| Intestine | Intestinal organoids | Crypt-villus organoids recapitulating intestinal crypts | ASCs | Culture media; Advanced DMEM/F12, EGF, R-spondin 1, Noggin and Jagged-1 peptide. Overlay media; Advanced DMEM/F12, EGF, R-spondin 1, Noggin and Y-27632 | Lgr5+ cells can form crypt-villus organoids in vitro | Mouse | [27] |
Organoids have been generated for a number of organs as depicted in the table using pluripotent stem cells and tissue-resident stem cells. Direct differentiation of PSC-derived organoids require the induction of germ-layer specification following induction of specific cell types and finally maturation of cells via the introduction of growth factors. Organoids derived from adult stem cells require the isolation of tissue-specific stem cells. iPSCs, induced pluripotent stem cells; ES, embryonic stem cells; ASCs, adult stem cells; MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells; hPSCs, human pluripotent stem cells; HUVECs, human umbilical vein endothelial cells. bFGF, basic fibroblast growth factor; ROCK, Rho-associated protein kinase; DMEM/F12, Dulbecco’s modified eagle medium/F12; MEM-NEAA, minimum essential media–nonessential amino acids; dFBS, defined fetal bovine serum; FGF, fibroblast growth factor; BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; EGF, epidermal growth factor; KFG, keratinocyte growth factor; FAF-BSA, fatty acid-free bovine serum albumin; ITS-X, insulin–transferrin–selenium–ethanolamine.