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. 2023 Nov 15;14:7383. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-43303-1

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — a Electric field distribution near the surface of 15°, 30°, 60° and 90° through COMSOL multiple physical quantities. b The electric field values at the tips of nanoneedle with different tip angle. c K⁺ absorption test. d OH^‒ absorption test. e FE values and f C₂₊ current density in acidic, neutral and alkaline environments. g Schematic diagram. Error bars represent the standard deviation of three independent measurements.