Table 1.
Different nanoformulations in DN therapeutics.
| S. No. | Nanocarriers | Key components/features of nanoformulations | Therapeutic agents | Outcomes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Liposomes | SAINT C18 | Rapamycin | Improved podocyte targeting with rapamycin | (62, 63) |
| 2 | Liposomes | Ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction | Co-enzyme Q10 | Preservation of podocytes, inhibition of apoptosis | (64) |
| 3 | Liposomes | soybean phosphatidylcholine, sodium deoxycholate | Eprosartan mesylate | Renal protection via blocking angiotensin II receptors | (65) |
| 4 | Liposomes | Ultrasound targeted microbubble destruction | Basic fibroblast growth factor | Intrarenal delivery, inhibition of inflammation | (66) |
| 5 | Liposomes | polymeric core and lipidic shell modified with kidney targeted peptide | Rhein | Improved kidney targeted distribution, and bioavailability | (67) |
| 6 | Liposomes | Distearoyl phosphatidylcholine | Hirudin | Enhanced accumulation of hirudin in renal tissue to relieve renal injury | (30) |
| 7 | Liposomes | Glucose-ligand conjugation | Astaxanthin | Preferential renal distribution via overexpressed GLUT1 receptors on mesangial cells | (68) |
| 8 | Liposomes | PEGylation | Quercetin | Renal protection | (69) |
| 9 | Nanoliposomes | – | Silymarin | Attenuation of DN-associated renal injury | (70) |
| 10 | Nanoliposomes | soybean phosphatidylcholine | Calycosin | Regulation of mitochondrial respiratory activities | (45) |
| 11 | SLNs | Compritol | Myricitrin | Improved bioavailability of myricitrin | (71, 72) |
| 12 | NLCs | Glyceryl monostearate and decanoyl/octanoyl-glycerides | Ergosterol | Improved oral bioavailability against DN complications | (73) |
| 13 | Niosomes | Cholesterol | Gymnemic acid | Inhibition of AGEs and oxidative stress | (74) |
| 14 | Niosomes | Cholesterol | Rubiadin | Oral admi istration, improved biomarker status | (75) |
| 15 | Polymeric nanoparticles | Chitosan | siRNA | Kidney-specific delivery utilizing megalin receptors | (76) |
| 16 | Polymeric nanoparticles | PLA-P85-PLA | Insulin | Protection of insulin from enzymatic breakdown, improved permeability | (77) |
| 17 | Polymeric nanoparticles | Cyclodextrin | siRNA | Greater uptake of mannose-targeted nanoparticles in mesangium | (78) |
| 18 | Polymeric nanoparticles | PEG-b-(PELG-g-PZLL) | Quercetin | Downregulation of ICAM1 on renal epithelium | (79) |
| 19 | Lysozyme-conjugate PEI nanoplexes | PEI | Gentamycin | Megalin-mediated uptake in proximal cells | (80) |
| 20 | Polymeric nanoparticles | Polyethyleneglycol-co-polycaprolactone-co-polyethylenimine | Rhein | Improved solubility, and renal distribution of rhein | (81) |
| 21 | Polymeric nanoparticles | PLGA | Phe-Tyr dipeptide | Improved bioavailability of peptide | (82) |
| 22 | Polymeric nanoparticles | Chitosan | Insulin | Oral delivery reduced fasting blood glucose level | (83) |
| 23 | Polymeric nanoparticles | PLGA | Crocetin | Anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic activities | (84) |
| 24 | Polymeric nanoparticles | Chitosan | Polydatin | Stronger hypoglycemic response and amelioration of DN compared to native polydatin | (85) |
| 25 | Polymeric nanoparticles | PLA | Tinospora cordifolia stem extract | Reduced expression of proinflammatory cytokines | (86) |
| 26 | Polymeric nanoparticles | Chitosan | Berberine | Improved permeability of berberine | (87) |
| 27 | Polymeric nanoparticles | p(AAPBA-b-HPA) | Insulin | Glucose and pH-sensitive delivery of insulin | (88) |
| 28 | Polymeric nanoplex | Dendrimer-templated polymer, albumin | Si RNA | Enhanced serum stability, avoidance of degradation by RNase, cytosolic delivery of siRNA following endosomal escape | (48) |
| 29 | Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles | Chitosan, tripolyphosphate | All-trans retinoic acid | Improved solubility profile of retinoic acid | (1) |
| 30 | Metallic nanoparticles | AuNPs | Pomegranate peel extract | Downregulation of ROS production | (89) |
| 31 | Metallic nanoparticles | AgNPs | Momordica charantia leaf extract | Normalization of KIM1 levels | (90) |
| 32 | Metallic nanoparticles | AgNPs | Momordica charantia leaf extract | Reversal of DN-mediated alterations of gene expressions | (91) |
| 33 | Nanoparticles | In situ AuNPs onto chitosan functionalized PLGA nanoparticles | Insulin | Long-term insulin release upon oral delivery | (92) |
| 34 | Mesoporous silica nanoparticles | Silica, cerium oxide | Metformin | Long-term cyclic scavenging of free radicals | (93) |
| 35 | Biological nanoparticles | Virus | Cinaciguat | Active accumulation of cinaciguat at mesangial sites | (40) |
| 36 | Cationic nanoparticles | Cyclodextrin, adamantine-PEG | siRNA | Electrostatic interaction with negatively charged glomerular 4444rrrr4basement membrane | (36) |
| 37 | Immunoliposomes | Hydrogenated soybean phosphatidylcholine | Mycophenolate mofetil | Size-dependent retention in mesangium resulting in decreased cell expansion | (94) |
| 38 | Nab-paclitaxel | Albumin | Paclitaxel | Renoprotective effects | (95) |
| 39 | Nanoparticles | PF-A299-585 | Triplotide | Renal targeting | (96) |
| 40 | Nanoparticles | Albumin | Methylprednisolone | Neonatal Fc receptor-targeted delivery improved cellular uptake in podocytes | (97) |
| 41 | Nanoparticles | Melanin@Glc-NCM | Melanin | Improved bioavailability of melanin, photo-thermal and glucose-sensitive delivery to mesangial cells | (98) |
| 42 | QDs | Semiconductor | RGDfC motif | Enhanced binding to αvβ3 receptors on podocytes | (99) |
| 43 | Metallic nanoparticles | ZnO nanoparticles | – | Activation of autophagy, elevated antoxidant and anti-inflammatory effects | (100) |
| 44 | Metallic nanoparticles | AuNPs | AuNPs combined with dapagliflozin | Renoprotective effect by targeting miR-21 and miR-192 | (101) |
| 45 | Polymeric nanoparticles | PGA-coated polymeric nanoparticles | Rhein | Improved renal drug distribution and cellular uptake | (102) |
| 46 | Metallic nanoparticles | SeNPs | SeNPs combined with bee venom | Improvements in biochemical, histological, and molecular parameters | (103) |
| 47 | Nanoparticles | p-Coumaric acid nanoparticles | Chitosan | Improved nephroprotection | (104) |
| 48 | Metallic nanoparticles | AuNPs | – | Attenuation of high glucose-induced cytotoxicity on renal tubular epithelial cells | (105) |