TABLE 1.

Clinical manifestations of leptospirosis in dogs.

Organ involvement	Possible clinical signs	Diagnostic investigation
Acute kidney injury (tubulointerstitial nephritis)	Vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, lethargy, inappetence, polyuria, polydipsia, oliguria, anuria, abdominal pain	Azotemia, electrolyte abnormalities, isosthenuria, glucosuria, proteinuria, pyuria, cylindruria, hyperechoic renal cortices
Cholestatic hepatopathy	Vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, lethargy, inappetence, icterus	Increased liver enzymes, hyperbilirubinemia, hypoalbuminemia
Leptospiral pulmonary hemorrhage syndrome	Tachypnea, hemoptysis, increased breath sounds	Anemia, hypoxemia, diffuse or patchy interstitial to alveolar patterns
Coagulopathy	Petechiae, ecchymoses, hematuria, melena, hematemesis, epistaxis	Anemia, hypoalbuminemia, thrombocytopenia, hyperfibrinogenemia
Vasculitis	Peripheral edema, mild ascites, pleural effusion	Pleural effusion, mild ascites/retroperitoneal fluid
Pancreatitis	Vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain	Hyperbilirubemia, increased liver enzyme activities, increased canine pancreas‐specific lipase activity, increased DGGR lipase
Ocular involvement	Uveitis, conjunctivitis, retinal hemorrhages	Fundoscopic examination
Myocarditis	Cardiac arrhythmias	Increased serum troponin, ECG abnormalities
Enteritis	Vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain	Thickened intestinal walls, evidence of intestinal intussusception
Myositis	Reluctance to move	Increased CK activity
Reproductive tract	Abortion, infertility
Skin	Calcinosis cutis