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. 2023 Aug 18;325(4):H751–H767. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.00378.2023

Table 1.

Immune regulatory receptor drug targets

Stimulatory Receptors Effector Signaling Pathways Upregulated Inhibitory Receptors Effector Signaling Pathways Downregulated
CD28 (1417) PI3K-AKT, ERK, T-bet, Eomes, GATA3, AP-1, NFAT, NF-κB (18, 19) CTLA4 (CD152) (14, 16, 17, 20) PI3K-AKT, AP-1, NF-κB, NFAT, MAPK (21, 22)
ICOS (1417) JNK, PI3K-AKT-mTOR-NFAT (23, 24) PD-1 (CD279) (14, 16, 17, 20) MAPK, PI3K-AKT, AP-1, NFAT, NF-κB (21, 25)
HVEM (17) TRAF recruitment, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K-AKT, AP-1 (26, 27) BTLA (17, 28) Binds with CD160, reduced CD3 signaling, NF-κB, AKT, STAT3 (2931)
CD27 (1517) TRAF recruitment, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K-AKT (27, 32) TIM-3 (14, 17, 20) Binds to Galectin-9/Bat3, PI3K-AKT, NF-κB (33, 34)
4-1BB (CD137) (1417) TRAF recruitment, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K-AKT (27, 35) TIGIT (14, 17, 20) ZAP70/Syk, ERK (36), PI3K (37)
OX-40 (CD134) (1417) TRAF recruitment, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K-AKT (27, 38) CD160 (17) Binds with BTLA, reduced CD3 signaling (30, 31), p56, PI3K (26)
DR3 (17) TRAF recruitment, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K-AKT (27, 39) LAG-3 (14, 17, 18) STAT5, AKT (40)
GITR (14, 17) TRAF recruitment, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K-AKT (27) LAIR1 (17) JAK/STAT, MAPK (26)
CD30 (16, 17) TRAF recruitment, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K-AKT (27) B7-1 (14, 17) NF-κB (41)
SLAM (15, 17) PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF-κB, MAPK (42) NRP1 (20) MAPK, PI3K (43)
CD2 (17) mTOR, AMPK, MAPK (44) CCR4 (45) MAPK, PLC, PI3K (46)
TIM-2 (17) Largely still unknown VISTA (47) Largely still unknown
CD226 (14, 17) PI3K-AKT, ERK, FOXO1 (48)
LFA-1 (CD11A/CD18) (15) PI3K (49)

Immune stimulatory and inhibitory receptors are common drug targets for immunotherapy. Among these targets is PD-1, the target for pembrolizumab. Other drug-targeting therapies have been used in conjunction with pembrolizumab to rapidly reduce and eliminate tumor burden. AMPK, AMP-activated kinase; AP-1, activator protein 1; BAT3, B-associated transcript 3; BTLA, B- and T-lymphocyte attenuator; CCR4, C-C chemokine receptor type-4; CD, cluster of differentiation; CTLA-4, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4; eomes, eomesodermin; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; FOXO1, forkhead box protein O1; GATA3, GATA binding protein 3; GITR, glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein; HLA, human leukocyte antigen; HVEM, herpes virus entry mediator; ICOS, T-cell costimulator; JAK, janus kinase; LAG-3, lymphocyte activation gene 3; LAIR1, leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin receptor 1; LFA-1, leukocyte function-associated antigen 1; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; NFAT, nuclear factor of activated T cells; NF-κB, nuclear factor κB; NRP1, neuropilin-1; PD-1, programmed cell death protein 1; PI3K-AKT, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-protein kinase B; PLC, phospholipase C; RAS, rat sarcoma virus; SLAM, signaling lymphocytic activation molecule; STAT, signal transducer and activators of transcription; syk, spleen tyrosine kinase; T-bet, T-box expressed in T cells; TIGIT, T-cell immunoglobulin and ITIM domain; TIM, T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain; TRAF, tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor; VISTA, V-domain Ig suppressor of T-cell activation; ZAP70, ζ-chain-associated protein kinase 70.