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. 2023 Nov 20;8:178. doi: 10.1038/s41541-023-00773-0

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Death tolls of major epidemics or pandemics in the last millennia are signified by circle size. Different interventions (triangles) were used during each pandemic, and advancements in intervention strategies likely reduced death tolls significantly, especially during COVID-19.