Table 1.

Model selection results comparing used and available steps within the western Great Lakes distinct population segment of gray wolves (Canis lupus), USA and southern Ontario and Manitoba, Canada, 2017–2021.

Top model AIC = 454,149.5
Parameter	Estimate	SE	P-value
Prop. natural cover	0.335	0.033	< 0.001
Road density	− 0.175	0.025	< 0.001

Second model ΔAIC =  + 5.2
Parameter	Estimate	SE	P-value
Prop. natural cover	0.335	0.033	< 0.001
Road density	− 0.175	0.025	< 0.001
Road density × Floating	0.031	0.052	0.557
Prop. natural cover × Floating	− 0.069	0.064	0.275
Road density × Dispersing	0.037	0.061	0.548
Prop. natural cover × Dispersing	0.017	0.050	0.734

Models were ranked using AIC; variables included road density (km/km²) and proportion of natural cover, and their interactions with movement type (reference level: Resident). Continuous variables were scaled (− 1 to 1) and included random slopes for continuous variables to account for individual variation among wolves. Parameter estimates are reported with standard error (SE) and p-values (α < 0.05).