Table 1.
Scientific/professional associations and expert groups that are supportive (S), reserved (R), or dismissive (D) regarding vegan nutrition during all life stages, including in pregnant women, breastfeeding women, infants, children, adolescents, adults, elderly individuals, and athletes (listed chronologically from 2003 to 2023).
| Professional Associations and Expert Group |
Year of Publication |
S/R/D | Quoted Position |
|---|---|---|---|
| American Dietetic Association [58] | 1997 | S | Appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, are nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. |
| American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada [46] | 2003 | S | Well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. |
| European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition [69] | 2008 | D | Infants and young children receiving a vegetarian diet should receive a sufficient amount (500 mL) of milk (breast milk or formula) and dairy products. Infants and young children should not receive a vegan diet. |
| American Dietetic Association [45] | 2009 | S | Well-planned vegetarian diets are appropriate for individuals during all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence, and for athletes. |
| Dietitians of Canada [42,71] | 2010 | S | A well-planned vegan diet can meet all of these needs. It is safe and healthy for pregnant and breastfeeding women, babies, children, teenagers, and seniors. |
| Ministry of Health of Slovenia [72] | 2010 | D | Vegan and macrobiotic foods are not suitable for children (of note: primarily related to infant diet). |
| Ministry of Health of Slovenia [73] | 2010 | D | It is not recommended for children and adolescents to eat a completely vegan diet, where meat and meat products, milk and milk products, and eggs are completely excluded from the diet. A vegan diet can be harmful to a child’s development and health and can lead to health consequences. |
| European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition [61] | 2011 | R | When a vegetarian diet is practiced, appropriate planning (taking into account recommended macro- and micronutrient intakes) and monitoring (growth, zinc, iron, vitamin B12, and vitamin D) should be undertaken by a health care professional (of note: their position refers for children aged 2–18 years). |
| National Institute of Public Health of Slovenia [74] | 2011 | D | We do not recommend a vegan diet, where meat and meat products, milk and milk products, and eggs are excluded from meals. A vegan diet can be harmful to a child’s development and health and can lead to serious health problems, which is why, based on numerous studies, we do not recommend it. |
| National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia [44] | 2013 | S | Appropriately planned vegetarian diets, including total vegetarian or vegan diets, are healthy and nutritionally adequate. Well-planned vegetarian diets are appropriate for individuals during all stages of the lifecycle. |
| Dietitians of Canada [75,76] | 2014 | S | A healthy vegan diet can meet all your nutrient needs at any stage of life including when you are pregnant, breastfeeding, or for older adults. |
| Extended Professional College for Paediatrics of Slovenia [67] | 2015 | D | The Extended Professional College for Paediatrics of Slovenia does not agree with the vegan diet for children and adolescents and does not support its introduction in kindergartens and schools. |
| Portugal National Programme for the Promotion of Healthy Eating [41] | 2015 | S | When appropriately planned, vegetarian diets, including lacto-ovo vegetarian or vegan, are healthy and nutritionally adequate for all cycles of life, and they can be useful in prevention and treatment of some chronic diseases. |
| Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (before 2012 as American Dietetic Association) [43] | 2016 | S | It is the position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics that appropriately planned vegetarian, including vegan, diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may provide health benefits for the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. |
| German Nutrition Society [77] | 2016 | D | With a pure plant-based diet, it is difficult or impossible to attain an adequate supply of some nutrients. The most critical nutrient is vitamin B12. The DGE does not recommend a vegan diet for pregnant women, lactating women, infants, children, or adolescents. |
| Canadian Paediatric Society [78] | 2017 | S | Well-planned vegetarian diets (vegan diet included) can support pregnancy, breastfeeding and growth during infancy and childhood. |
| Italian Society of Human Nutrition [39] | 2017 | S | Well-planned vegetarian diets (lacto-ovo vegetarian and vegan) that include a wide variety of plant foods, and a reliable source of vitamin B12, provide adequate nutrient intake. |
| Italian Society of Preventive and Social Paediatrics, Italian Federation of Paediatricians, and Italian Society of Perinatal Medicine [79] | 2017 | D | A vegan diet should not be recommended for children because it lacks essential nutrients such as vitamin B12, DHA, iron, vitamin D, and calcium. Children following this diet should undergo careful monitoring of their growth and overall development. |
| European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition [3] | 2017 | S | Vegan diets should only be used under appropriate medical or dietetic supervision and parents should understand the serious consequences of failing to follow advice regarding supplementation of the diet (of note: their position refers to the framework of complementary feeding). |
| British Dietetic Association [38] | 2017 | S | Well-planned vegan diets can support healthy living in people of all ages. |
| Finish Food Authority [80] | 2019 | S | A carefully composed vegan diet is also suitable for pregnant and breastfeeding women, children, and young people. A vegan diet should be complemented with nutrition supplements that contain vitamin B12 and iodine. |
| Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine [53,54] | 2019 | S | Vegan diets are appropriate, and they satisfy the nutrient needs and promote normal growth at all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, older adulthood, and for athletes. |
| German Society for Paediatric and Adolescent Medicine [47] | 2019 | S | The nutritional needs of growing children and adolescents can generally be met through a balanced, vegetable-based diet. Vitamin B12 should be supplemented in people of all age groups who follow a strict vegan diet. |
| French Paediatric Hepatology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition Group [48] | 2019 | D | A vegan diet is not recommended for infants, children, and adolescents due to the risk of nutritional deficiencies that are inevitable in the absence of supplements. Vegan diets that exclude all animal products from the food register are not adapted to the human species. |
| Royal Academy of Medicine of Belgium [51] | 2019 | D | The commission considers that the vegan diet is unsuitable and therefore not recommended for unborn children, children, and adolescents, as well as pregnant and breastfeeding women. |
| Spanish Paediatric Association [63] | 2020 | R | A vegetarian or a vegan diet, as in any other kind of diet, needs to be carefully designed. After reviewing current evidence, even though following a vegetarian diet at any age does not necessarily mean it is unsafe, it is advisable for infant and young children to follow an omnivorous diet or, at least, an ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet. |
| Extended Professional College for Paediatrics of Slovenia [66] | 2022 | D | ESPGHAN guidelines for paediatric nutrition advise against vegan and caution vegetarian diets for children and adolescents. |
| British National Health Service [81] | 2022 | R | With good planning and an understanding of what makes up a healthy, balanced vegan diet, you can obtain all the nutrients your body needs. If you are bringing up your baby or child on a vegan diet, you need to ensure they obtain a wide variety of foods to provide the energy and vitamins they need for growth. |
| Dietitians Association of Australia [82] | 2022 | S | A varied and well-balanced vegetarian diet (vegan diet included) can supply all the nutrients needed for good health. Children need enough nutrients to help them grow and develop. Parents and carers of children following a vegetarian diet should take special care to ensure they are getting enough nutrition to thrive. |
| Norwegian Directorate of Health [62] | 2022 | S | With knowledge about diet and proper planning, it is possible to create a balanced and nutritious plant-based diet for infants (of note: their position refers to infant from 0 to 1 year of age). |
| Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine [54,83] | 2023 | S | A plant-based diet is a healthful choice at every stage of life, including pregnancy and breastfeeding. |
| Kaiser Permanente [84] | 2023 | S | A well-planned vegetarian or vegan diet can be healthy for children and teens. |
S: supportive, R: reserved, D: dismissive.