Figure 2.

(A) Dehydration. (B) Supercooling and intracellular ice formation. (C) Vitrification. (D) Cell lysis. (E) Apoptotic onset. The use of NaDESs in cryopreservation can prevent the formation of extracellular ice crystals, avoiding osmotic imbalance and consequent cellular dehydration. Rapid cooling rates and the addition of high concentrations of cryoprotectant agents (CPA) can achieve vitrification, an amorphous and ice-free state. However, high concentrations of CPA can be toxic to cells. NaDESs exhibit low toxicity when compared to conventional cryoprotectants. Finally, cryopreservation can induce apoptosis, leading to delayed cell death after thawing. Due to their low toxicity, NaDESs can decrease the death rate.