Table 4.
Potential Risk of Bias Assessment for the Included Studies
| Author & Publication Year | Evidence of Weathering | Health Outcome | Geographic Location | Dataset | Sample Size | Study Design | Study Participation | Study Attrition | Exposure Measurement | Outcome Measurement | Study Confounding | Statistical Analysis & Reporting | Overall Potential for Bias |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Geronimus 2010 | Yes | Telomere length | Boston, Chicago, Detroit, Oakland, Los Angeles, Newark, Pittsburgh | SWAN | 215 | Cohort | High | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Simons 2016 | Yes | Epigenetic measure of biological aging/methylation | Georgia & Iowa | FACHS | 100 | Cohort | High | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Wallace 2013 | Yes | Gestational age | Louisiana | Tulane-Lakeside Hospital Department of Obstetrics &Gynecology | 123 | Cohort | High | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Wallace 2013 | No | Birthweight | Louisiana | Tulane-Lakeside Hospital Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology | 123 | Cohort | High | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Wallace 2013 | No | Birthweight ratio | Louisiana | Tulane-Lakeside Hospital Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology | 123 | Cohort | High | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Wallace 2013 | No | Birth length | Louisiana | Tulane-Lakeside Hospital Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology | 123 | Cohort | High | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Wallace 2013 | No | Head circumference | Louisiana | Tulane-Lakeside Hospital Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology | 123 | Cohort | High | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Spence 2008 | No | Functional limitations | U.S. | NLS-MW | 1608 | Cohort | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Borrell 2010 | Yes | All-cause mortality | U.S. | NHANES III & NDI | 13,715 | Cohort | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Kramer 2014 | Yes | Preterm-low birthweight | Georgia | Georgia birth records & U.S. Census | 1,000,437 | Cohort | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Lin 2017 | Yes | Functional limitations | U.S. | HRS | 7715 | Cohort | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Spence 2009 | Yes | Longevity (post reproductive mortality) | U.S. | NLS-MW | 3769 | Cohort | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Strutz 2014 | Yes | Birthweight | U.S. | Add Health | 5413 | Cohort | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Geronimus 2015 | Yes | Telomere length | Detroit | HEP Community Survey | 202 | Cross-sectional | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | Yes | High blood pressure | North Carolina | BRFSS & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | High | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | Yes | Body mass index | North Carolina | Behavioral BRFSS & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | High | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | No | Cholesterol | North Carolina | BRFSS & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | High | Low | High |
| Wildsmith 2002 | Yes | Hypertension | U.S. | NCHS | 387, 909 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | High | Low | High |
| Wildsmith 2002 | No | Anemia | U.S. | NCHS | 387,909 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | High | Low | High |
| Thorpe 2016 | Yes | Diabetes | U.S. | NHIS | 619,130 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | High |
| Thorpe 2016 | Yes | Hypertension | U.S. | NHIS | 619,130 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | High |
| Thorpe 2016 | Yes | Stroke | U.S. | NHIS | 619,130 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | High |
| Thorpe 2016 | No | Cardiovascular disease | U.S. | NHIS | 619,130 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | Yes | Infant mortality | North Carolina | BRFSS & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | Yes | Low birth weight | North Carolina | BRFSS & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | Yes | Neonatal mortality | North Carolina | BRFSS & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | Yes | Postneonatal mortality | North Carolina | Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | Yes | Self-reported health | North Carolina | BRFSS & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | High |
| Buescher 2006 | Yes | Very low birth weight | North Carolina | BRFSS & North Carolina birth & infant death records | 495,551 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | High |
| Wildsmith 2002 | Yes | Neonatal mortality | U.S. | NCHS | 387, 909 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | High |
| Wildsmith 2002 | No | Low birthweight | U.S. | NCHS | 387,909 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low | High |
| Bird 2010 | Yes | Allostatic load | U.S. | NHANES III | 13,184 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Chinn 2016 | Yes | Functional limitations | U.S. | NHIS | 42,908 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Collins 2006 | No | Very low birth weight | Illinois | Illinois Vital Records, U.S. Census & Chicago Department of Public Health data | 46,725 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Chyu 2011 | Yes | Allostatic load | U.S. | NHANES IV | 5765 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Cohen 2016 | Yes | Infant mortality | U.S. | NCHS | 2,960,578 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Collins 2006 | Yes | Moderately low birth weight | Illinois | Illinois Vital Records, U.S. Census & Chicago Department of Public Health data | 46,725 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Collins 2009 | Yes | Low birth weight | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 267,303 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Collins 2012 | No | Low birthweight | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 267,303 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Collins 2012 | No | Preterm birth | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 267,303 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Collins 2012 | No | Intrauterine growth retardation | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 267,303 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Collins 2015 | Yes | Low birth weight | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 70,580 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Collins 2015 | Yes | Small for gestational age | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 70,580 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Das 2013 | Yes | Metabolic outcomes (blood sugar/diabetes blood pressure, heart rate) | U.S. | NSHAP | 1455 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Dennis 2013 | Yes | Low birth weight | U.S. | ECLS-B | 6150 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Geronimus 1996 | Yes | Low birth weight | Michigan | Michigan Vital Records & U.S. Census | 54,888 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Geronimus 1996 | Yes | Very low birth weight | Michigan | Michigan Vital Records & U.S. Census | 54,888 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Geronimus 2006 | Yes | Allostatic load | U.S. | NHANESIV | 6586 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Geronimus 2007 | Yes | Hypertension | U.S. | NHANES IV | 5501 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Goisis 2014 | Yes | Low birth weight | United Kingdom | ONSLS | 45,856 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Hibbs 2016 | Yes | Preterm birth | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 267,303 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Holzman 2009 | Yes | Preterm birth | Philadelphia, Baltimore, 16 Michigan cities, 3 Maryland counties, 2 North Carolina counties | The Multilevel Modeling of DisparitiesExpl aining Preterm Delivery Project & U.S. census | 182,938 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Howard 2016 | Yes | Mortality | U.S. | NHANES III & NDI | 11,733 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Kaestner 2009 | Yes | Allostatic load | U.S. | NHANES III | 7010 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Khoshnood 2005 | Yes | Low birth weight | U.S. | NCHS | 8,433,935 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Khoshnood 2005 | Yes | Moderately low birth weight | U.S. | NCHS | 8,433,935 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Khoshnood 2005 | Yes | Very low birth weight | U.S. | NCHS | 8,433,935 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Love 2010 | Yes | Low birth weight | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 70,615 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Love 2010 | Yes | Small for gestational age | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 70,615 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Love 2010 | No | Preterm birth | Illinois | Illinois transgeneration al dataset & U.S. Census | 70,615 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Osypuk 2008 | Yes | Preterm birth | U.S. | NCHS & U.S. Census | 1,944,703 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Peek 2010 | Yes | Allostatic load | Texas City | Texas City Stress & Health Study | 1410 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Powers 2013 | Yes | Infant mortality | U.S. | NCHS | 26,578,118 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Powers 2016 | Yes | Infant mortality | U.S. | NCHS | 14,542,120 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Rauh 2001 | Yes | Moderately low birth weight | New York City | Bureau of vital statistics, New York City Department of Health & U.S. Census | 158,174 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Rauh 2001 | Yes | Very low birth weight | New York City | Bureau of vital statistics, New York City Department of Health & U.S. Census | 158,174 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Sheeder 2006 | Yes | Small for gestational age | Colorado | Colorado birth certificate data | 91,061 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Swamy 2012 | Yes | Mean birth weight | North Carolina | North Carolina birth record database | 510,288 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Wang 2012 | No | Low birthweight or preterm birth | Taiwan | Taiwan birth registration | 8432 | Cross-sectional | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
Add Health=National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health
BRFSS=Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System
ECLSB= Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort
FACHS=Family and Community Health Study
HEP= The Healthy Environment Partnership
HRS=Health and Retirement Study
NCHS=National Center for Health Statistics
NDI=National Death Index
NHANES=National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
NHIS=National Health Interview Survey
NLS-MW=National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women
NSHAP= National Social Life, Health and Aging Project
ONSLS=Office for National Statistics longitudinal study
SWAN= Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation