Table 1.
Participant Characteristics and Post–COVID-19 Symptoms
| Post–COVID-19 (n = 29) | Controls (n = 25) | P Value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age, y | 42.4 ± 12.3 | 44.1 ± 12.3 | .61a |
| Sex | |||
| Men | 10 (34.5) | 11 (44) | .47b |
| Women | 19 (65.5) | 14 (56) | |
| Race/ethnicity: Asian, Biracial, Black, Hispanic, White | 0, 1, 8, 1, 19 | 2, 0, 10, 4, 9 | .08b |
| Education: graduate, undergraduate, some college, high school | 8, 8, 8, 5 | 12, 7, 3, 3 | .34b |
| Body mass index | 30.7 ± 8.0 | 27.3 ± 6.7 | .10a |
| Index of Social Positionc | 30.4 ± 14.1 | 29.0 ± 14.6 | .73a |
| Substance use history: lifetime, past month | |||
| Tobacco use | 10, 1 | 10, 1 | >.99,b >.99d |
| Marijuana usee | 14, 3 | 5, 1 | .04,b .36d |
| Alcohol use | 23, 23 | 21, 21 | >.99,b >.99b |
| Comorbid medical illnesses pre–COVID-19 or vaccination status at study | |||
| Hypertension | 6 | 1 | .11d |
| Diabetes | 4 | 0 | .12d |
| Overweight/obese | 9/13 | 6/8 | .91b |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 4 | 0 | .12d |
| SARS-CoV-2 vaccination: yes, no, unknown | 16, 13, 0 | 20, 2, 3 | .05b |
| Post–COVID-19 participant history and symptoms | |||
| Days since diagnosis | 242 ± 156 (42–484) | ||
| Hospitalized, nonhospitalized | 9, 20 | ||
| COVID-19 treatments received | |||
| Nasal cannula O2, hi-flow, or BiPAP | 5, 3 | ||
| Ventilation, ECMO | 2, 1 | ||
| Steroid,f remdesivir, monoclonal antibodyg | 15, 5, 3 | ||
| Other treatments (apixaban, antibioticsh) | 1, 5 | ||
| Post–COVID-19 symptoms, %: total (mild, moderate, severe) | |||
| Neurologic | |||
| Concentration problems | 92.9 (14.3, 53.6, 25.0) | ||
| Memory problems | 78.6 (17.9, 39.3, 21.4) | ||
| Confusion | 64.3 (42.9, 14.3, 7.1) | ||
| Headaches | 57.1 (7.1, 35.7, 14.3) | ||
| Dizziness | 57.1 (28.6, 14.3, 14.3) | ||
| Gait disturbance | 50.0 (28.6, 17.9, 3.6) | ||
| Visual disturbances | 50.0 (21.4, 21.4, 7.1) | ||
| Paresthesia | 42.9 (17.9, 10.7, 14.3) | ||
| Coordination problems | 39.3 (14.3, 25.0, 0.0) | ||
| Hyposmia | 28.6 (14.3, 10.7, 3.6) | ||
| Dysgeusia | 28.6 (14.3, 7.1, 7.1) | ||
| Postural instability | 14.3 (3.6, 7.1, 3.6) | ||
| Other neurologic | 14.3 (10.7, 3.6, 0.0) | ||
| Psychological/other | |||
| Fatigue | 85.7 (10.7, 28.6, 46.4) | ||
| Depression or anxiety | 67.9 (21.4, 32.1, 14.3) | ||
| Sleep disturbances | 64.3 (17.9, 21.4, 25.0) | ||
| Myalgia | 60.7 (21.4, 32.1, 7.1) | ||
| Lightheadedness | 46.4 (17.9, 17.9, 10.7) | ||
| Urinary problems | 25.0 (17.9, 3.6, 3.6) |
Data are presented as mean ± SD (range) or No. (%) unless noted otherwise.
Abbreviations: BiPAP, bilevel positive airway pressure; ECMO, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; hi-flow, high-flow oxygen.
a T test.
bChi-square test.
cIndex of Social Position calculated from the Hollingshead Four Factor Index of Socioeconomic Status.
dFisher exact test.
eIncludes 2 post–COVID-19 using cannabidiol.
fDexamethasone, prednisone, methylprednisolone, or hydrocortisone.
gBamlanivimab or etesevimab.
hAzithromycin or ceftriaxone.