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. 2023 Nov 27;6:221. doi: 10.1038/s41746-023-00961-1

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Treatment effect estimates adjusted only for baseline confounding versus adjusted for baseline and treatment-affected time-varying confounding (TTC) reported by sixteen of the included studies. Treatment effects were reported in terms of odds or hazard ratios (including the reported 95% CIs). In three studies (A), the point estimates moved to the opposite direction, in two (B) and eight (C) studies, the estimates moved away from and towards the null hypothesis, respectively. In three studies (D), there was a marginal difference in point estimates. Pouwels et al. (2020) estimated treatment effect on length-of-stay (in terms of days) by adjusting for baseline confounding and by adjusting for baseline confounding and TTC, and found a marginal difference in point estimates. *Khanal et al. (2012) compared prolonged intermittent renal replacement therapy with two different alternative treatments.