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. 2023 Nov 28;20:87. doi: 10.1186/s12987-023-00489-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 3 — Electrode arrangement for transcranial DC stimulation in a rat. a The epicranial electrode (contact area = 3.5 mm²) is fixed onto the skull unilaterally above the frontal cortex (1.5 mm right and 2 mm anterior to bregma) using dental cement. b Before DC stimulation, the epicranial electrode is filled with saline solution. A large rubber plate mounted on the chest serves as the counter electrode, images adapted from Liebetanz et al. [104]. c Schematic of the setup for the tDCS. One electrode connects to the rat cranium and the counter electrode connects to the ventral thoracic region, d Determination of the BBB solute permeability with illustration of the scanning region of interest (ROI) comprising several microvessels. The yellow frame enclosed area is the ROI used to determine the BBB permeability to a solute. e Total fluorescence intensity in the ROI as a function of the perfusion time. Fluorescence intensity in the figure is proportional to the total amount of solute accumulating in the region surrounding the microvessel. Figure taken from Shin et al. [101]